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Eastern

Specialty Definition: Byzantine Empire

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Timeline
Byzantine Empire
Date	Event
330	Constantine I makes Constantinople his capital.
527	Justinian I becomes Emperor.
532-537	Justinian builds the church of Hagia Sophia
1054	The Church in Constantinople breaks with the Church in Rome
1204	Constantinople is captured by crusaders
1261	Constantinople is liberated by the Byzantine emperor Michael Palaeologus.
1453	Ottoman Turks take Constantinople. End of Byzantine Empire

The Byzantine Empire or Eastern Roman Empire was the eastern section of the Roman Empire which remained in existence after the fall of the western section. The life of the empire is commonly considered to span AD 395 to 1453. During the thousand years of its existence, it was known simply as the "Roman Empire." The Byzantines considered themselves to be Romans (Rhomaioi) and the legitimate continuation of the Roman Empire, although much of its religion, language, and culture was in actuality Greek. Latin remained the official language until the 7th century. Surrounding lands and empires (such as the Persians and Arabs to the east, Europeans to the west, and Russians to the north) called them Roman as well, and it was considered a great insult to refer to the empire as "Greek.", because "Greek" meant "Pagan". The empire was not referred to as "Byzantine" until the 17th century, when historians began to distinguish the medieval entity from the (in reality quite different) ancient empire. This name comes from the ancient Greek colony of Byzantium.

Origin

The division of the Empire began with the Tetrarchy (quadrumvirate) in the late 3rd century AD with Emperor Diocletian, as an institution intended to more efficiently control the vast Roman empire. He split the empire in half, with two emperors ruling from Italy and Greece, each having a co-emperor of their own. This division continued into the 4th century until 324 when Constantine the Great managed to become the sole Emperor of the Empire. Constantine decided to found a new capital for himself and chose Byzantium (today's Istanbul) for that purpose. The rebuilding process was completed in AD 330. Constantine renamed the city Nova Roma (New Rome) but in popular use it was called Constantinople, meaning Constantine's City. This new capital became the centre of his administration. Constantine was also the first Christian emperor. Although the empire was not yet "Byzantine" under Constantine, Christianity would become one of the defining characteristics of the Byzantine Empire, as opposed to the pagan Roman Empire.

Another defining moment in the history of Roman/Byzantine Empire was the Battle of Adrianople in 378. This defeat, along with the death of Emperor Valens, is one possible date for dividing the ancient and medieval worlds. The Roman empire was divided further by Valens' successor Theodosius I (also called "the great"), who had ruled both beginning in 392. In 395 he gave the two halves to his two sons Arcadius and Honorius; Arcadius became ruler in the East, with his capital in Constantinople, and Honorius became ruler in the west, with his capital in Milan. At this point it is common to refer to the empire as "Eastern Roman" rather than "Byzantine."

Byzantine Imperial eagle

Culture

Although the empire was still considered Roman, in reality the general prevailing cultural identity of the Eastern Roman Empire was Greek. Greek was not only the everyday language, but also the language of the church, of the literature and of all commercial transactions. The empire was a multinational state, including Greeks, Armenians, Jews, Egyptians, Syrians, Illyrians, and Slavs, but its Greek culture radiated from large centers of Hellenism such as Constantinople, Antioch, Ephesus, Thessalonika and Alexandria. Though it was not as pronounced at this time, the Eastern Empire was developing its own style of Christianity, under such scholars as John Chrysostom.

Early History

The Eastern Empire was largely spared the difficulties of the west in the 3rd and 4th centuries, in part because urban culture was better established there and the initial invasions were attracted to the wealth of Rome. Throughout the 5th century various invasions conquered the western half of the empire, but at best could only demand tribute from the eastern half. Theodosius II expanded the walls of Constantinople, leaving the city impenetrable to "barbarian" attacks. Zeno I ruled the east as the empire in the west finally collapsed in 476. Zeno negotiated with the Goths, ending their threats to the east but leaving them in control of the west.

The 6th century saw the beginning of the conflicts with the Byzantine Empire's traditional early enemies, the Persians, Slavs, and Bulgars. Theological crises, such as the question of Monophysitism, also dominated the empire. However, the Eastern Empire had not forgotten its western roots. Under Justinian I, and the brilliant general Belisarius, the empire even regained some of the lost Roman provinces in the west, conquering much of Italy, north Africa, and Spain. Justinian updated the ancient Roman legal code in the new Corpus Juris Civilis, although it is notable that these laws were still written in Latin, a language which was becoming archaic and poorly understood even by those who wrote the new code. Under Justinian's reign, the Church of Hagia Sophia was constructed in the 530s. This church would become the centre of Byzantine religious life and the centre of the still-developing Eastern Orthodox form of Christianity.

Justinian left his successors an empty treasury, however, and they were unable to deal with the sudden appearance of new invaders on all fronts. The Lombards seized Northern Italy, the Slavs overwhelmed much of the Balkans, and the Persians invaded and conqured the eastern provinces. These were recovered by the emperor Heraclius, but the unexpected appearance of the newly converted and united Muslim Arabs took Heraclius by surprise, and the southern provinces were all overrun. Mesopotamia, Syria and Egypt were permanently incorporated into the Muslim Empire in the 7th century.

Hellenizing Era

What the empire lost in territory, though, it made up in uniformity. Heraclius fully Hellenized the empire by making Greek the official language, and he took the title Basileus ("king") instead of the old Roman term Augustus. The empire was by now noticeably different in religion than the former imperial lands in western Europe, although the southern Byzantine provinces differed significantly from the north in culture and practiced monophysite (rather than Orthodox) Christianity. The loss of the southern provinces to the Arabs made Orthodoxy stronger in the remaining provinces. Heraclius divided the empire into a system of military provinces called themes to face permanent assault, with urban life declining outside the capital while Constantinople grew to become the largest city in the world. Attempts by the Arabs to conquer Constantinople failed in the face of the Byzantines' superior navy and their monopoly of the still mysterious incendiary weapon Greek fire. After repelling the initial Arab assault, the empire began to recover.

The 8th century was dominated by the controversy over iconoclasm. Icons were banned by Emperor Leo III, leading to revolts by iconophiles within the empire. Thanks to the efforts of Empress Irene, the Second Council of Nicaea met in 787 and affirmed that icons could be venerated but not worshipped. Irene also attempted a marriage alliance with Charlemagne, which would have united the two empires, but these plans came to nothing. The iconoclast controversy returned in the early 9th century, but they were restored once more in 843. These controversies did not help the disintegrating relations with the Roman Catholic Church and the Holy Roman Empire, which were both beginning to gain more power of their own.

Golden Era

The empire reached its height under the Macedonian emperors of the late 9th, 10th and early 11th centuries. During these years the Empire held out against pressure from the Roman church to remove the patriarch Photius, and gained control over the Adriatic Sea, parts of Italy, and much of the land held by the Bulgarians. The Bulgarians were completely defeated by Basil II in 1014. The Empire also gained a new ally (yet sometimes also an enemy) in the new Russian state in Kiev, from which the empire received an important mercenary force, the Varangian Guard.

Like Rome before it, though, Byzantium soon fell into a period of difficulties, caused to a large extent by the growth of the landed aristocracy, which undermined the theme system. Facing its old enemies, the Holy Roman Empire and the Abbasid caliphate, it might have recovered, but around the same time new invaders appeared on the scene who had little reason to respect its reputation - the Normans, who conquered Italy, and the Seljuk Turks, who were mainly interested in defeating Egypt but still made moves into Asia Minor, the main recruiting ground for the Byzantine armies. With the defeat at Manzikert of emperor Romanus IV in 1071 by Alp Arslan, sultan of the Seljuk Turks, most of that province was lost. The final split between the Roman and Orthodox churches occurred at this time as well, with their mutual excommunication in 1054.

End of Empire

The last few centuries of Byzantine life were brought by a usurper, Alexius Comnenus, who began to reestablish an army on the basis of feudal grants (pronoia) and made significant advances against the Seljuk Turks. His plea for western aid against the Seljuk advance brought about the First Crusade, which helped him reclaim Nicaea but soon distanced itself from imperial aid. Later crusades grew increasingly antagonistic. Although Alexius' grandson Manuel I Comnenus was a friend of the Crusaders, neither side could forget that the other had excommunicated them, and the Byzantines were very suspicious of the intentions of the Roman Catholic Crusaders who continually passed through their territory. The Germans of the Holy Roman Empire and the Normans of Sicily and Italy continued to attack the empire in the 11th and 12th centuries. The Italian city states, who had been granted trading rights in Constantinople by Alexius, became the targets of anti-Western sentiments as the most visibly example of Western "Franks" or "Latins." The Venetians were especially disliked, even though their ships were the basis of the Byzantine navy. To add to the empire's concerns, the Seljuks remained a threat, defeating Manuel at Myriokephalon in 1176.

Frederick Barbarossa attempted to conquer the empire during the Third Crusade, but it was the Fourth Crusade that had the most devastating effect on the empire. Although the intent of the crusade was to conquer Egypt, the Venetians took control of the expedition, and under their influence the crusade captured Constantinople in 1204. As a result a short-lived feudal kingdom was founded, (the Latin Empire) and Byzantine power was permanently weakened.

Three Byzantine successor states were left - the Empire of Nicaea, Epirus, and Trebizond. The first, controlled by the Palaeologan dynasty, managed to reclaim Constantinople in 1261 and defeat Epirus, reviving the empire but giving too much attention to Europe when the Asian provinces were the primary concern. For a while the empire survived simply because the Muslims were too divided to attack, but eventually the Ottomans overran all but a handful of port cities. The empire appealed to the west for help, but they would only consider sending aid in return for reuniting the churches. Church unity was considered, and occasionally accomplished by law, but the Orthodox citizens would not accept Roman Catholicism. Some western mercenaries arrived to help, but many preferred to let the empire die, and did nothing as the Ottomans picked apart of the remaining territories.

Constantinople was initially not considered worth the effort of conquest, but with the advent of cannons, the walls, which had been impenetrable except by the Crusaders for over 1000 years, no longer offered protection from the Ottomans. The Fall of Constantinople finally came after a two-year siege by Mehmed II on May 29, 1453. By the end of the century the remaining cities, such as Trebizond and Mistra, had also fallen.

The Byzantine empire played an important role in the transmission of classical knowledge to the Islamic world. Its most lasting influence, though, lies in its church. Early Byzantine missionary work spread Orthodox Christianity to various Slavic peoples, and it is still predominant among them and the Greeks. The start and end dates of the capital's independence, 395 to 1453, were originally the defined bounds of the Middle Ages.

See also List of Byzantine Empire-related topics, Roman Empire, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, Latin Empire, Empire of Nicaea, Byzantine currency, Byzantine architecture and Byzantine aristocracy and bureaucracy.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Byzantine Empire."

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East

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

East is most commonly a noun, adjective, or adverb indicating direction or geography.

East is the direction from which the sun rises at the equinox. It is one of the four cardinal points of the compass, upon which it is considered the opposite of West, and at right angles to North and South.

"The East" is also used to refer to the Eastern United States. See also East Coast.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "East."

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East of England

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

East of England is one of the regions of England. Its population in mid-2000 was estimated at 5,459,600. It is divided into the following local government areas:

Counties

See Counties of England

• Bedfordshire
• Cambridgeshire
• Essex
• Hertfordshire
• Norfolk
• Suffolk

Unitary Authority Areas

See Unitary authorities in England

• Luton -- formerly part of Bedfordshire
• Peterborough -- formerly part of Cambridgeshire
• Southend-on-Sea -- formerly part of Essex
• Thurrock -- formerly part of Essex

External links

• Statistics
• Government Office for the East of England - GO-East
• East of England Development Agency - EEDA

  Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "East of England."

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Eastern

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

The term Eastern can have multiple meanings depending on its context. Most modern uses of the term refer to Eastern philosophy, Eastern or Asian countries, Eastern history or ancient Asian culture, typically also including those countries whose ethnic identity and their dominant culture derive from ancient Asian culture. Thus in various contexts the term "Eastern" may refer to something that came from the East.

The term is usually associated with a cultural tradition that traces its origins to ancient Asian thought and Asian religions like Buddhism, Hinduism, Confucianism and Taoism. Cornerstones in this tradition are arguably beliefs in:

• spiritual,
• karmic,
• or ancestral forces
• personal auras,
• or energy flows around the human body
• and anti-scientific thought in general.

  Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Eastern."

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Eastern Armenian

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Eastern Armenian is one of the two modern dialects of Armenian (an Indo-European language), spoken in the Caucasus mountains (particularly in the Armenian Republic).

Phonology

The phonology of Eastern Armenian features a three-way distinction in its stops and affricates (here given with corresponding fricatives):

		Stop		Affricate		Fricative
		unaspirate	aspirate	unaspirate	aspirate
Labial	Voiced	b				v
	Voiceless	pʻ (p)	pʰ (p')			f
	Nasal	m
Dental	Voiced	d		dz		z
	Voiceless	tʻ (t)	tʰ (t')	cʻ (c)	cʰ (c')	s
	Nasal	n
Palatal	Voiced			ʤ (j)		ʒ (zh)
	Voiceless			ʧʻ (ch)	ʧʰ (ch')	ʃ (sh)
Velar	Voiced	g				ɣ (gh)
	Voiceless	kʻ (k)	kʰ (k')			x (kh)
Glottal	Voiceless					h

Armenian also features a two-way distinction between its rhotic sounds, /r/ (r') and /ɹ/ (r). Armenian has one lateral approximant, /l/.

There are seven Armenian vowels:

	Front	Central	Back
High	i		u
Mid	e	ə (ë)	o
Low		a

The phonology of Eastern Armenian preserves the three-way distinction in stops and affricates that is missing from Western Armenian.

Another element of both varieties of Armenian is devoicing of final stops and affricates, so that a word like t'az ('crown') is pronounced t'as. In Eastern Armenian, the effect of devoicing renders voiced stops and affricates (which are not aspirated) as voiceless aspirate stops, meaning kamurj (bridge) sounds like kamurch'.

Morphology

Nouns

Eastern Armenian nouns have seven casess, one more than Western Armenian. They are: Nominative (subject), Accusative (direct object), Genitive (possession), Dative (indirect object), Ablative (origin), Instrumental (means) and Locative (position). Of the seven cases, the nominative and accusative, with exceptions, are the same, and the genitive and dative are the same, meaning that nouns have mostly five distinct forms for case. Nouns in Armenian also decline for number (singular and plural), but do not decline for gender (i.e. masculine or feminine).

Declension in Armenian is based on how the genitive is formed. There are several declensions, but two are the most used (genitive in i, and genitive in u):

	dasht (field)		gari (barley)
	singular	plural	singular	plural
Nom-Acc	dasht	dashter	gari	gariner
Gen-Dat	dashti	dashteri	garu	garineri
Abl	dashtic'	dashteric'	garuc'	garineric'
Instr	dashtov	dashterov	garov	garinerov
Loc	dashtum	dashterum	garum	garinerum

Two notes:
First, notice that the Ablative form in Eastern Armenian is -ic', where it is -ê in Western Armenian:

Abl.sg WA karê/EA garuc'

Second, notice that in Western Armenian, the plural forms followed the u-declension, while in Eastern Armenian the plural forms follow the i-declension:

Gen.pl WA karineru/EA garineri

Articles

Like some other languages such as English, Armenian has definite and indefinite articles. The indefinite article in Eastern Armenian is mi, which precedes the noun:

mi girk' ('a book', Nom.sg), mi grk'i ('of a book', Gen.sg)

The definite article is a suffix attached to the noun, and is one of two forms, either -ë or -n, depending on whether the final sound is a vowel or a consonant, and whether a preceding word begins with a vowel or consonant:

mardë ('the man', Nom.sg)
garin ('the barley' Nom.sg)
but:
Sa mardn ê ('This is the man')
Sa garin ê ('This is the barley')

Adjectives

Adjectives in Armenian do not decline for case or number, and precede the noun:

lav girk'ë ('the good book', Nom.sg)
lav grk'in ('to the good book', Gen.sg)

Verbs

Verbs in Armenian are based on two basic series of forms, a "present" form and a "imperfect" form. From this, all other tenses and moods are formed with various particles and constructions. There is a third form, the preterite, which in Armenian is tense in its own right, and takes no other particles or constructions. (See also Armenian verbs and Eastern Armenian verb table for more detailed information.)

The present tense in Eastern Armenian is based on two conjugationss (a, e). In Eastern Armenian, the distinct conjugations in e and i merged as e.

	linel 'to be'	sirel 'to love'	kardal 'to read'
present participle		sirum	kardum
yes (I)	em	sirem	kardam
du (you.sg)	es	sires	kardas
na (he/she/it)	ê	siri	karda
menk' (we)	enk'	sirenk'	kardank'
duk' (you.pl)	ek'	sirek'	kardak'
nrank' (they)	en	siren	kardan

The present tense (as we know it in English) is made by adding the present tense of linel after the present participle form of the verb:

Yes kardum em girk'ë (I am reading the book)
Yes sirum em da girk'ë (I love this book)

See also

• Armenian language
• Armenian verbs
• Eastern Armenian verb table
• Western Armenian
• Language families and languages

External links

• Free online resources for learners
• http://www.ethnologue.com/show_iso639.asp?code=hye
• http://www.cilicia.com

  Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Eastern Armenian."

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Eastern Armenian verb table

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

The following is an Eastern Armenian verb table. The Western Armenian verb table can be found here:

Conjugations

Affirmative/Interrogative

Type I/II

(This conjugation is termed "I/II" to coincide with historic/Western numbering, where there are still three distinct conjugations)

		Indicative Present	Imperfect	Preterite	Future
1sg 2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl	yes du na menk' duk' nrank'	sirum em sirum es sirum ê sirum enk' sirum ek' sirum en	sirum êi sirum êir sirum êr sirum êink' sirum êik' sirum êin	sirec'i sirec'ir sirec' sirec'ink' sirec'ik' sirec'in	sirelu yem sirelu yes sirelu ê sirelu yenk' sirelu yek' sirelu yen
		Perfect	Pluperfect		Fut. Perfect
1sg 2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl		sirel em sirel es sirel ê sirel enk' sirel ek' sirel en	sirel êi sirel êir sirel êr sirel êink' sirel êik' sirel êin		sirelu êi sirelu êir sirelu êr sirelu êink' sirelu êik' sirelu êin
		Optative Non-Past	Past	Conditional Non-Past	Past
1sg 2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl		sirem sires siri sirenk' sirek' siren	sirei sireir sirer sireink' sireik' sirein	ksirem ksires ksiri ksirenk' ksirek' ksiren	ksirei ksireir ksirer ksireink' ksireik' ksirein
		Jussive Non-Past	Past		Imperative
1sg 2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl		piti sirem piti sires piti siri piti sirenk' piti sirek' piti siren	piti sirei piti sireir piti sirer piti sireink' piti sireik' piti sirein		sirir! ~ siri!     sirec'ek'! ~ sirek'!
Infinitive Gerund Present Participle I Present Participle II Past Act. Participle Past Pass. Participle Future Participle		sirel (to love) sirogh sirum sirelis sirel sirac sirelu

Type III

(This conjugation is termed "III" (instead of "II") to coincide with historic/Western numbering, where there are still three distinct conjugations)

		Indicative Present	Imperfect	Preterite	Future
1sg 2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl	yes du na menk' duk' nrank'	kardum em kardum es kardum ê kardum enk' kardum ek' kardum en	kardum êi kardum êir kardum êr kardum êink' kardum êik' kardum êin	kardac'i kardac'ir kardac' kardac'ink' kardac'ik' kardac'in	kardalu yem kardalu yes kardalu ê kardalu yenk' kardalu yek' kardalu yen
		Perfect	Pluperfect		Fut. Perfect
1sg 2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl		kardac'el em kardac'el es kardac'el ê kardac'el enk' kardac'el ek' kardac'el en	kardac'el êi kardac'el êir kardac'el êr kardac'el êink' kardac'el êik' kardac'el êin		kardalu êi kardalu êir kardalu êr kardalu êink' kardalu êik' kardalu êin
		Optative Non-Past	Past	Conditional Non-Past	Past
1sg 2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl		kardam kardas karda kardank' kardak' kardan	kardayi kardayir kardar kardayink' kardayik' kardayin	kkardam kkardas kkarda kkardank' kkardak' kkardan	kkardayi kkardayir kkardar kkardayink' kkardayik' kkardayin
		Jussive Non-Past	Past		Imperative
1sg 2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl		piti kardam piti kardas piti karda piti kardank' piti kardak' piti kardan	piti kardayi piti kardayir piti kardar piti kardayink' piti kardayik' piti kardayin		karda!     kardac'ek'!
Infinitive Gerund Present Participle I Present Participle II Past Act. Participle Past Pass. Participle Future Participle		kardal (to read) kardac'ogh kardum kardalis kardac'el kardac'ac kardalu

Negative

Type I

Note: the formation of the negative is the same for all conjugations. The examples below are based on the first conjugation.

		Indicative Present	Imperfect	Preterite	Future
1sg 2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl	yes du na menk' duk' nrank'	ch'em sirum ch'es sirum ch'i sirum ch'enk' sirum ch'ek' sirum ch'en sirum	ch'êi sirum ch'êir sirum ch'êr sirum ch'êink' sirum ch'êik' sirum ch'êin sirum	ch'sirec'i ch'sirec'ir ch'sirec' ch'sirec'ink' ch'sirec'ik' ch'sirec'in	ch'em sirelu ch'es sirelu ch'i sirelu ch'enk' sirelu ch'ek' sirelu ch'en sirelu
		Perfect	Pluperfect		Fut. Perfect
1sg 2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl		ch'em sirel ch'es sirel ch'i sirel ch'enk' sirel ch'ek' sirel ch'en sirel	ch'êi sirel ch'êir sirel ch'êr sirel ch'êink' sirel ch'êik' sirel ch'êin sirel		ch'êi sirelu ch'êir sirelu ch'êr sirelu ch'êink' sirelu ch'êik' sirelu ch'êin sirelu
		Optative Non-Past	Past	Conditional Non-Past	Past
1sg 2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl		ch'sirem ch'sires ch'siri ch'sirenk' ch'sirek' ch'siren	ch'sirei ch'sireir ch'sirer ch'sireink' ch'sireik' ch'sirein	ch'em siri ch'es siri ch'i siri ch'enk' siri ch'ek' siri ch'en siri	ch'êi siri ch'êir siri ch'êr siri ch'êink' siri ch'êik' siri ch'êin siri
		Jussive Non-Past	Past		Imperative
1sg 2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl		*piti ch'sirem piti ch'sires piti ch'siri piti ch'sirenk' piti ch'sirek' piti ch'siren	*piti ch'sirei piti ch'sireir piti ch'sirer piti ch'sireink' piti ch'sireik' piti ch'sirein		mi sirir! ~ mi siri!     mi sirec'ek'! ~ mi sirek'!
Infinitive Gerund Present Participle I Present Participle II Past Act. Participle Past Pass. Participle Future Participle		ch'sirel (to not love) ch'sirogh ch'sirum ch'sirelis ch'sirel ch'sirac ch'sirelu

Note: the negative jussive forms may also be (in Eastern Armenian) ch'piti sirem, ch'piti sires, etc; ch'piti sirei, ch'piti sireir, etc.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Eastern Armenian verb table."

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Eastern Berber languages

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Afro-Asiatic - Berber - Eastern Berber The Eastern Berber languages are a subgroup of the Berber languages, spoken in parts of Libya and Egypt.

The group consists of these related languages:

• The Awjila-Sokna group:
  • Awjila
  • Sawknah
• Siwi

  Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Eastern Berber languages."

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Eastern district

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

The Eastern district is one of the 18 districts of Hong Kong. Population (2000): 620,800.

It is located on Hong Kong Island and includes North Point, Quarry Bay, Shau Kei Wan, and Chai Wan.

See also: List of buildings, sites and areas in Hong Kong

External link

• District Council website

  Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Eastern district."

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Eastern Europe

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Eastern Europe is a perceived grouping of countries on the European continent. Today, the term Eastern Europe is often used to designate the European countries under (former) communist regimes.

Their populations do not see themselves as Eastern Europeans, and many consider it a pejorative term. Most countries prefer to include themselves in other groups, associating themselves with Germany in Central Europe, with Scandinavia in Northern Europe or with Italy and Greece in Southern Europe.

As a term its origins are fairly recent. For many years Europe was divided on a North South axis. With the southern Mediteranean states having much in common, and the northern Atlantic Ocean and Baltic Sea bordering states also having much in common. The term first arose in the eighteenth and nineteenth century to describe an area that was falling behind the rest of Europe economically. It was seen as a region where serfdom and autocratic governments persisted long after those notions were fading in the west. It was always a very vague notion, however, and many countries in the region did not fit the stereotypical view.

Much of Eastern Europe has ties to both the east and west. While all of the countries were heavily influenced by Roman Catholic or Protestant Christianity and have very close historical and cultural ties to Germany, Italy, France or Scandinavia (e.g. the Hanseatic league in the Baltics). Many countries also had relations with the East. Russia was under the control of the Mongols for centuries and inherited political and social conventions from them. Further south the influence of the Ottoman Empire and Islam had a very strong influence. The nations of the Balkans as well as Hungary and Romania were all at one time controlled by the Turks.

The concept of Eastern Europe was greatly strengthened by the domination of the region by the Soviet Union after the Second World War and the takeover of the nations of the region by communist governments. The idea of an "Iron Curtain" separating Eastern and Western Europe was an extremely common view throughout the Cold War. This strict dualism caused problems, however, as it failed to account for the complexities of the region. For instance, Yugoslavia and Albania refused to be controlled by Moscow, but this division was often ignored by many in the west.

The countries normally meant by the term Eastern Europe are:

• Albania
• the Baltic States
• Bulgaria
• former Czechoslovakia (now Czech Republic and Slovakia)
• Hungary
• Poland
• Romania
• former Yugoslavia

Prior to the Reunification of Germany, East Germany was often described as an Eastern European country.

See also: Northeastern Europe

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Eastern Europe."

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Eastern Grey Kangaroo

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Eastern Grey Kangaroo
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Subclass: Marsupialia Order: Diprotodontia Family: Macropodidae Genus: Macropus Species: giganteus
Binomial name
Macropus giganteus

Southern and eastern Australia support a population of several million Eastern Grey Kangaroos. The scientific name, Macropus giganteus is misleading, as while a big Eastern Grey male weighs around 66 kg and stands almost 2m tall, the Red Kangaroo of the semi-arid inland is bigger still.

Eastern Greys are easy to recognise: their soft grey coat is distinctive, and they are usually found in moister, more fertile areas than the Red. Alternative names for the species include Great Grey Kangaroo and Forester.

Although the Red is better known by reputation, the Eastern Grey is the species most commonly seen in the flesh: few Australians visit the arid interior of the continent, while many live in and around the major cities of the south and east coast, from where it is usually only a short drive to the remaining pockets of near-city bushland where roos can be found without much difficulty. They prefer open grassland with areas of bush for daytime shelter. Like all kangaroos, they are mainly nocturnal and crepuscular, and are mostly seen early in the morning, or as the light starts to fade in the evening.

In more remote areas, Eastern Greys occur in great numbers and if left unchecked reach plague proportions. From time to time shooters are employed to reduce their numbers, almost always to the accompaniment of a public outcry. Given the very limited amount of fodder in dry years, however, the only other choice is starvation.

Eastern Grey Kangaroo.

It is often said that kangaroo populations have increased significantly since the European colonisation of Australia because of the increased areas of grassland (as opposed to forest), the reduction in Dingo numbers, and the availability of artificial water. At least so far as Eastern Greys are concerned, the scientific evidence suggests otherwise: the current population is to be measured in tens of millions, but the estimated pre-European population is thought to have been closer to hundreds of millions.

While Eastern Greys remain common, there are vast areas of country from which they have been exterminated (in general, they avoid humans), and most of the more fertile districts now carry crops or exotic pasture grasses which kangaroos tend not to eat. (One of the easiest ways to find kangaroos is to look for patches of remnant native grassland.)

See also:

• Macropod
• Western Grey Kangaroo

  Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Eastern Grey Kangaroo."

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Eastern philosophy

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

In the West, the term Eastern philosophy refers very broadly to the various philosophical systems of East Asia. The development of the major Eastern philosophical traditions occurred primarily in India, China, and Japan.

Most Western universities focus almost exclusively on Western philosophical traditions and ideas in their philosophy departments and courses. When one uses the unqualified term "philosophy" in a Western academic context, Eastern philosophies are generally overlooked; consequently, the term "Eastern philosophy" came into use.

Differences from Western Philosophy

Arguments Against the "Eastern Philosophy" Designation

Some have argued that the distinction between Eastern and Western philosophies is arbitrary and purely geographic, that this artificial distinction does not take into account the tremendous amount of interaction between Eastern and Western thought, and that the distinction is more misleading than enlightening.

Arguments For the "Eastern Philosophy" Designation

Others have argued that there are a number of general differences between Eastern philosophies and Western philosophies. They feel that some broad distinctions may be drawn, with the goal of helping a Westerner unfamiliar with Eastern philosophic traditions to understand the general patterns of differences (with the understanding that these are sweeping generalization, and there are numerous exceptions on both sides.)

Proponents of this view point out that there has been relatively little study of Eastern philosophic traditions in Western academic settings as compared to Western traditions, and that synergies within each sphere are far more common than synergies between Eastern and Western philosophies. Awareness of Eastern philosophies in the West has largely been relegated to the World Religions departments of Western universities, or to New Age nonacademic works, though there are several notable exceptions. The University of Hawaii, for example, offers many courses in Eastern philosophy [1].

The Perception of God and the gods

Because of the influence of monotheism and especially the Abrahamic religions, Western philosophies have been faced with the question of the nature of God and His relationship to the universe. This has created a dichotomy among Western philosophies between secular philosophies and religious philosophies which develop within the context of a particular monotheistic religion's dogma regarding the nature of God and the universe.

Eastern philosophies developed in a polytheistic setting, and have not been as concerned by questions relating to the nature of a single God as the universe's sole creator and ruler. The distinction between the religious and the secular tends to be much less sharp in Eastern philosophy, and the same philosophical school often contains both religious and philosophical elements. Thus, some people accept the metaphysical tenets of Buddhism without going to a temple and worshipping. Some have worshipped the Taoist deities religiously without bothering to delve into the philosophic underpinnings, while others embrace Taoist philosophy while ignoring the religious aspects.

This arrangement stands in marked contrast to most philosophy of the West, which has traditionally enforced either a completely unified philosophic/religious belief system (e.g. the various sects and associated philosophies of Christianity, Judaism, and Islam), or a sharp and total repudiation of religion by philosophy (e.g. Nietzsche, Marx, Voltaire, etc.) The distinction between religion and philosophy is not so important in the East.

Gods' relationship with the Universe

Another common thread that often differentiates Eastern philosophy from Western is the belief regarding the relationship between God or the gods and the universe. Western philosophies typically either disavow the existence of God, or else hold that God or the gods are something separate and distinct from the universe. This comes from the influence of the Abrahamic religions, which teach that this universe was created by a single all-powerful God who existed before and separately from this universe. The true nature of this God is incomprehensible to us, His creations.

Eastern philosophic traditions generally tend to be less concerned with the existence or non-existence of gods. Although some Eastern traditions have supernatural spiritual beings and even powerful gods, these are generally not seen as separate from the universe, but rather as a part of the universe.

The Role and Nature of the Individual

It has been argued that in most Western philosophies, the same can be said of the individual: Western philosophies generally assume as a given that the individual is something different from the universe, and Western philosophies attempt to describe and categorize the universe from a detached, objective viewpoint. Eastern philosophies, on the other hand, typically hold that people are an intrinsic and inseparable part of the universe, and that attempts to discuss the universe from an objective viewpoint as though the individual speaking was something separate and detached from the whole are inherently absurd.

Philosophical Traditions

An overview of the major Eastern philosophic traditions. Each tradition has a separate article with more detail on sects, schools, etc. (c.f.)

Taoism

Taoism originated in China. Taoism's central book, the Dao de jing appeared in approximately 600 BCE. The beliefs themselves are much more ancient, incorporating elements of mysticism dating back to prehistoric times. The Dao de jing was written by Lao Zi (Wade-Giles, Lao tse), a minor Chinese court official who became tired of the petty intrigues of court life, and set off to live as a hermit in the desert. Taoism teaches "action through inaction" (wu wei), that one should effect changes subtly and without disrupting the natural flow of the universe, rather than by attempting to force change. Another central idea is the dualism of the universe, the belief that all aspects of everything are diametrically opposed into divisions of light and dark, male and female, yin and yang, etc. One half is no better than the other, and indeed, neither can exist without the other, since each contains a small amount of the other. Ultimately, both are the same thing, tao, which means the way ahead.

Some time after the publication of the Dao de jing and another work by Zhuang zi (Wade-Giles, Chuang tse), Taoism developed its religious aspect, especially among the Chinese peasantry. Lao Zi and other famous personas were elevated to deity status among followers, and complex religious rituals involving alchemy, magic spells and symbology began to be practiced.

Confucianism

Confucianism is the traditional foil to Taoism, developed by Confucius in the 6th through 5th centuries BCE, shortly after the Dao de jing was written. Whereas Taoism takes a holistic and empirical approach to the universe, Confucianism attempts to create a complex interdependent and well-defined system of ethics and morals. Confucianism emphasizes formal rituals in every aspect of life, from quasi-religious ceremonies to strict politeness and deference to one's elders, specifically to one's parents and to the state in the form of the Emperor.

Legalism

Legalism advocated a strict interpretation of the law in every respect. Morality was not important; adherence to the letter of the law was paramount. Officials who exceeded expectations were as liable for punishment as were those who underperformed their duties, since both were not adhering exactly to their duties. Legalism was the principal philosophic basis of the Qin Dynasty in China. Confucian scholars were persecuted under Legalist rule.

Buddhism

Buddhism is a system of beliefs based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, an Indian prince later known as the Buddha, or one who is Awake. Buddhism is fairly unique as a traditional non-theistic religion, one whose tenets are not especially concerned with the existence or nonexistence of God. Buddha himself expressly disavowed any special divine status or inspiration, and said that anyone, anywhere could spiritually achieve all that he had. The question of God is largely irrelevant in Buddhism, though some sects (notably Tibetan Buddhism) do worship a number of gods drawn in from local indigenous belief systems, and hold that these gods are merely different aspects of the universal whole.

Buddhism is based on the Four Noble Truths. All life is held to be suffering derived from desire, and that suffering can be eliminated through awareness. Awareness is heightened through the practice of meditation.

Most Buddhist sects believe in karma, a cause-and-effect relationship between all that has been done and all that will be done. Events that occur are held to be the direct result of previous events. One effect of karma is rebirth. At death, the karma from a given life determines the nature of the next life's existence. The ultimate goal of a Buddhist practitioner is to eliminate karma (both good and bad), end the cycle of rebirth and suffering, and attain Nirvana, translated as nothingness or blissful oblivion and characterized as the state of being one with the entire universe.

See also: Buddhist philosophy -- Buddhism in China

Zen Buddhism

Zen is a fusion of Mahayana Buddhism with Taoist principles. Bodhidharma was a semilegendary Indian monk who traveled to China in the fifth century CE. There, at the Shaolin temple, he began the Ch'an school of Buddhism, known in Japan and in the West as Zen Buddhism. Zen philosophy places emphasis on existing in the moment, right now. Zen teaches that the entire universe is one's mind, and if one cannot realize enlightenment in one's own mind now, one cannot ever achieve enlightenment.

Zen practitioners engage in zazen (just sitting) meditation. Several schools of Zen have developed various other techniques for provoking satori, or enlightenment, ranging from whacking acolytes with a stick to shock them into the present moment to koans, Zen riddles designed to force the student to abandon futile attempts to understand the nature of the universe through logic.

Hinduism

Hinduism is a belief system prevalent in India. (c.f.)

Maoism

Maoism is a Communist philosophy based on the teachings of 20th century Communist Party of China revolutionary leader Mao Zedong. It is based partially on earlier theories by Marx and Lenin, but rejects the urban proletariat and Leninist emphasis on heavy industrialization in favor of a revolution supported by the peasantry, and a decentralized agrarian economy based on many collectivly worked farms.

Many people believe that the implementation of Maoism in China led to widespread famine, with millions of people starving to death. Chinese Communist leader Deng Xiaoping instituted non-Maoist reforms which eventually enabled the country to recover.

Despite this, Maoism has remained a popular ideology for various Communist revolutionary groups around the world, notably the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia, Sendero Luminoso in Peru, and an ongoing (as of early 2003) Maoist insurrection in Nepal.

Shinto

Shinto is the indigenous religion of Japan, a sophisticated form of animism that holds that spirits called kami inhabit all things. Worship is at public shrines, or in small shrines constructed in one's home.

See also: Chinese philosophy

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Eastern philosophy."

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Eastern Pomerania

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Eastern Pomerania (also East Pomerania, Gdansk Pomerania, Vistula Pomerania) is a geographical and historical region in the east of Pomerania in northern Poland.

Major cities: Gdansk, Gdynia, Sopot

See also: Dukes of Pomerania, Pomeranian Voivodship, Royal Prussia, West Prussia

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Eastern Pomerania."

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Ostfriesland

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Ostfriesland (literally "Eastern Frisia") is a coastal region in the northwest of the German federal state of Lower Saxony. It connects Western Frisia (in the Netherlands) with the districts of Dithmarschen and Nordfriesland ("Northern Frisia") in Schleswig-Holstein.

Ostfriesland consists of the districts of Aurich, Leer, Wittmund and Friesland, as well as of the cities of Emden and Wilhelmshaven. (The district of Friesland is culturally and historically distinct, but belongs nonetheless to the geographical region called Ostfriesland.)

There is a chain of islands in front of the coast, called the East Frisian Islands (Ostfriesische Inseln). These islands are (from west to east) Borkum, Juist, Norderney, Baltrum, Langeoog, Spiekeroog and Wangerooge.

Until the late Middle Ages Ostfriesland was a land populated by clans and ruled by chieftains, who resisted the attempts of German states to conquer the coasts. The first proven historical event was the arrival of a Roman fleet under Drusus in 12 BC; the ships sailed into the course of the Ems river and returned.

The Frisians appear to have arrived in the region about 500, but Ostfriesland was settled much earlier by other peoples. Frisia was a short-lived kingdom, that was crushed by Pippin of Herstal in 689. Ostfriesland became a part of the Frankish Empire, but later fell back to a land of clans. The Frisians controlled the mouth of the Ems river and threatened the ships coming down the river. For this reason the state of Oldenburg made several attempts to subjugate Ostfriesland during the 12th century. Thanks to the swampy terrain the Frisian peasants defeated the Oldenburgian armies every time. In 1156 even Henry the Lion failed to conquer the region.

The conflicts lasted for the next centuries. In the 14th century Oldenburg had given up all plans to conquer Ostfriesland. They restricted to irregular invasions, killed the livestock and returned. In the meantime the Frisians became a threat to the ships of the powerful Hanseatic League, since they attacked their ships as pirates. In 1400 a punitive expedition of the Hanseatic League against Ostfriesland succeeded. The chieftains had to promise to discontinue their support for the pirates. In 1402 the most famous pirate, Klaus Störtebeker (who was not a Frisian by birth), was captured and executed in Hamburg.

In the following years the chieftains were tamed. After 1465 they called themselves counts and no longer chieftains, and they accepted the sovereignty of the Holy Roman Empire. However, in 1514 the emperor ordered, that a duke of Saxony should be the heir to the count of Ostfriesland. Count Edzard of Ostfriesland resisted to accept this order and was outlawed. 24 German dukes and princes invaded Frisia with their armies. Despite their numerical superiority they failed to defeat Edzard, and in 1517 the emperor had to accept Edzard and his descendants as counts of Ostfriesland.

In 1654 the counts were elevated to the rank of princes. The East Frisian independency ended in 1744, when Prussia annexed the region. There was no resistance to this takeover, since it was arranged by contract before. After the Napoleonic Wars Prussia had to cede Ostfriesland to the kingdom of Hanover.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Ostfriesland."

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Abbreviations & Acronyms: Eastern

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Synonyms within Context: Eastern

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Modern Usage: Eastern

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Commercial Usage: Eastern

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Image Slideshow: Eastern

Photos: Eastern More pictures...

Illustrations: Eastern More pictures...

Computer Images: Eastern More pictures...

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Photo Album: Eastern

Thumbnail	Description & Credit	Thumbnail	Description & Credit
	Line and bar graph showing reported number of measles cases and measles vaccination coverage, by year--World Health Organization, 14 countries, Eastern Mediterranean region, 1980-1998. Credit: CDC.		Electron micrograph of the Eastern Equine Encephalitis virus in a mosquito salivary gland; Alphavirus; EEE. Credit: CDC.
	Eastern U.S. In the Grips of Old Man Winter. Credit: NASA.		Most of the eastern U.S. was cloud free October 11.  Such widespread cloudlessness in this part of the world is rare. These clear skies are associated with a region of high pressure over the eastern central U.S. Credit: NASA.
	View of the Eastern Pacific Ocean (just off the coast of South America) from Galileo. Credit: NASA.		Hurricane Bonnie approaching the Eastern Seaboard of the United States on1998 August 25, as viewed by GOES-8 (GeostationaryOperational Environmental Satellite). Image produced by DennisChesters, Marit Jentoft-Nilsen and Mark Sutton, Laboratory forAtmospheres, NASA Goddard SpaceFlight Center. Credit: NASA.
	This image shows a spinning formation of ice, clouds, and low-lying fog off the eastern coast of Greenland. Credit: NASA.		C&GS ship offshore near Rockland, Maine Conducting observations along the Eastern Oblique Arc. Credit: Coast & Geodetic Survey Historical Image Collection.
	Eastern end of Santa Cruz Island Surveyed by Assistant Stehman Forney, 1875 Topographic Survey T-1437. Credit: Coast & Geodetic Survey Historical Image Collection.		Marsh hibiscus seed pods. Also known as Eastern Rose Mallow (Hibiscus moscheutos.). Credit: America's Coastlines.
Source: pictures compiled by the editor from various references; see picture credits.

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Digital Photo Gallery: Eastern
 

"Art Deco Eagles" by Tim Keneipp Commentary: "These eagles rest on an art deco tower in Eastern Oregon."	"Bay" by Bob Hentges Commentary: "A bay on the south eastern side of Corsica."
Source: photographs selected by the editor, with permission from the photographers.

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Sounds Captioned with "Eastern".

Play	Caption
	A string instrument playing in a Middle Eastern style or manner.
Source: compiled by the editor from various references; see credits.

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Familiar Quotations: Eastern

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Historic Usage: Eastern

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Use in Literature: Eastern

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Non-Fiction Usage: Eastern

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Spoken Usage: Eastern

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Speeches: Eastern

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Usage Frequency: Eastern

Source: compiled by the editor from several corpora; see credits.

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Name Usage Frequency: Eastern

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Usage in Company Names: Eastern

Source: compiled by the editor from Icon Group International, Inc.

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Cities: Eastern

INDEX

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