جمهورية العراق Jumhūriyat Al-ʿIrāq (Arabic) كۆماری عێراق Komarê Iraq (Kurdish) Republic of Iraq
Flag Coat of arms
Motto: الله أكبر   (Arabic) "Allahu Akbar"  (transliteration) "God is [the] Greatest"
Anthem: Mawtini  (new) Ardh Alforatain  (previous)1
Capital (and largest city)		Baghdad2 33°20′N, 44°26′E
Official languages		Arabic, Kurdish
Demonym		Iraqi
Government		Developing parliamentary republic
-	President	Jalal Talabani
-	Prime Minister	Nouri al-Maliki
Independence
-	from the Ottoman Empire	October 1, 1919
-	from the United Kingdom	October 3, 1932
Area
-	Total	438,317 km² (58th) 169,234 sq mi
-	Water (%)	1.1
Population
-	2007 estimate	29,267,0004 (39th)
-	Density	66/km² (125th) 171/sq mi
GDP (PPP)		2006 estimate
-	Total	$89.8 billion (61st)
-	Per capita	$2,900 (130th)
Currency		Iraqi dinar (IQD)
Time zone		GMT+3 (UTC+3)
-	Summer (DST)	not observed (UTC+3)
Internet TLD		.iq
Calling code		+964
1	The Kurds use Ey Reqîb as the anthem.
2	The capital of Iraqi Kurdistan is Arbil.
3	Arabic and Kurdish are the official languages of the Iraqi government. According to Article 4, Section 4 of the Iraqi Constitution, Assyrian (Syriac) (a dialect of Aramaic) and Iraqi Turkmen (a dialect of Southern Azerbaijani) languages are official in areas where the respective populations they constitute density of population.
4	[CIA World Factbook]

Iraq, officially the Republic of Iraq (Arabic: جمهورية العراق (help·info) Jumhūrīyat Al-Irāq), is a country in Western Asia spanning most of the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range, the eastern part of the Syrian Desert and the northern part of the Arabian Desert.^[1] It shares borders with Kuwait and Saudi Arabia to the south, Jordan to the west, Syria to the northwest, Turkey to the north, and Iran to the east. It has a very narrow section of coastline at Umm Qasr on the Persian Gulf. There are two major flowing rivers: the Tigris and the Euphrates. These provide Iraq with agriculturally capable land and contrast with the desert landscape that covers most of Western Asia.

The capital city, Baghdad, is in the center-east. Iraq's rich history dates back to ancient Mesopotamia. The region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers is identified as the cradle of civilization and the birthplace of writing. During its long history, Iraq has been the center of the Akkadian, Assyrian, Babylonian and Abbasid empires, and part of the Achaemenid, Macedonian, Parthian, Sassanid, Umayyad, Mongol, Ottoman, and British empires.^[2]

Since an invasion in 2003, a multinational coalition of forces, mainly American and British, has occupied Iraq. The invasion has had wide-reaching consequences: increased civil violence, establishment of a parliamentary democracy, the removal and execution of former authoritarian President Saddam Hussein, official recognition and widespread political participation of Iraq's Kurdish minority and Shi'ite Arab majority, significant economic growth, building of new infrastructure, and use of the country's huge reserves of oil. According to the 2007 Failed States Index, produced by the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace's Foreign Policy magazine and the Fund for Peace, Iraq has recently emerged as the world's second most unstable country,^[3] after Sudan,^[4] and the United States has recently referred to it in court proceedings as "an active theater of combat."^[5] Iraq is developing a parliamentary democracy composed of 18 governorates (known as muhafadhat).

Name

The origin of the name Iraq (Arabic: العراق 'al-‘Irāq, Turkish: Irak, Assyrian: ܥܪܐܩ, Kurdish: عيَراق) is disputed. There are several suggested origins for the name. One dates to the Sumerian city of Uruk (or Erech)^[6] ; another maintains according to Professor Wilhelm Eilers, The name al-‘Irāq, for all its Arabic appearance, is derived from Middle Persian erāq "lowlands".^[7]

Under the Persian Sassanid dynasty, there was a region called "Erak Arabi," referring to the part of the south western region of the Persian Empire that is now part of southern Iraq. The name Al-Iraq was used by the Arabs themselves, from the 6th century, for the land Iraq covers.

The Arabic pronunciation is [ʕiˈrɑːq]. In English, the name is pronounced as either [ɪ.ˈɹɑ(ː)k] ( the only pronunciation listed in the Oxford English Dictionary) or [ɪ.ˈɹæk]] (listed first by MQD).

Geography

Main article: Geography of Iraq

Topography of Iraq

A scaled map of Iraq showing major cities, the Euphrates & the Tigris, the unnamed peak, and the surrounding area.

Iraq is located at 33°00′N, 44°00′E. Spanning 437,072 km² (168,743 sq mi), it is the 58th-largest country in the world. It is comparable in size to the US state of California, and somewhat larger than Paraguay.

Iraq mainly consists of desert, but between the two major rivers (Euphrates and Tigris) the area is fertile, the rivers carrying about 60 million cubic metres (78 million cu. yd) of silt annually to the delta. The north of the country is mostly composed of mountains; the highest point being at 3,611 metres (11,847 ft) point, unnamed on the map opposite, but known locally as Cheekah Dar (black tent). Iraq has a small coastline along the Persian Gulf. Close to the coast and along the Shatt al-Arab (known as arvandrūd: اروندرود among Iranians) there used to be marshlands, but many were drained in the 1990s.

The local climate is mostly desert, with mild to cool winters and dry, hot, cloudless summers. The northern mountainous regions have cold winters with occasional heavy snows, sometimes causing extensive flooding.

Comprising 112 billion barrels (1.78×10¹⁰ m³) of proven oil, Iraq ranks second in the world behind Saudi Arabia in the amount of Oil reserves^{[citation needed]}; the United States Department of Energy estimates that up to 90% of the country remains unexplored. These regions could yield an additional 100 billion barrels (1.6×10¹⁰ m³). Iraq's oil production costs are among the lowest in the world, but only about 2,000 oil wells have been drilled in Iraq, compared with about 1 million wells in Texas alone.^[8]

History

Main article: History of Iraq

Ancient Mesopotamia

Main article: History of Mesopotamia

The upper part of the stela of Hammurabi's code of laws

The region of Iraq was historically known as Mesopotamia (Greek: "between the rivers"). It was home to the world's first known civilization, the Sumerian culture, followed by the Akkadian, Babylonian, and Assyrian cultures, whose influence extended into neighboring regions as early as 5000 BC. These civilizations produced some of the earliest writing and some of the first sciences, mathematics, laws and philosophies of the world; hence its common epithet, the "Cradle of Civilization".

In the sixth century BC, Cyrus the Great conquered the Neo-Babylonian Empire, and Mesopotamia was subsumed in the Achaemenid Persian Empire for nearly four centuries. Alexander the Great conquered the region again, putting it under Macedonian rule for nearly two centuries. A Central Asian tribe of ancient Iranian peoples known as the Parthians later annexed the region, followed by the Sassanid Persians. The region remained a province of the Persian Empire for nine centuries, until the 7th century.

Islamic Caliphate

Main articles: Caliphate, Arab Empire, and Islamic Golden Age

The Arab empire and the caliphs during their greatest extent.      Under Muhammad, 622-632      Under the Patriarchal Caliphate, 632-661      Under the Umayyad Caliphate, 661-750

Beginning in the seventh century AD, Islam spread to what is now Iraq during the Islamic conquest of Persia, led by the Muslim Arab commander Khalid ibn al-Walid. Under the Rashidun Caliphate, the prophet Mohammed's cousin and son-in-law Ali moved his capital to Kufa "fi al-Iraq" when he became the fourth caliph. The Umayyad Caliphate ruled the province of Iraq from Damascus in the 7th century. (However, eventually there was a separate, independent Caliphate of Cordoba.)

The Abbasid Caliphate built the city of Baghdad in the 8th century as their capital, and it became the leading metropolis of the Arab and Muslim world for five centuries. Baghdad was the largest multicultural city of the Middle Ages, peaking at a population of more than a million, and was the centre of learning during the Islamic Golden Age. The Mongols destroyed the city during the sack of Baghdad in the 13th century.

Mongol Conquest

Main articles: Battle of Baghdad (1258) and Mongol invasions

In 1257, Hulagu Khan amassed an unusually large army, a significant portion of the Mongol Empire's forces, for the purpose of conquering Baghdad. When they arrived at the Islamic capital, Hulagu demanded surrender but the caliph refused. This angered Hulagu, and, consistent with Mongol strategy of discouraging resistance, Baghdad was decimated. Estimates of the number of dead range from 200,000 to a million.

The Mongols destroyed the Abbasid Caliphate and The Grand Library of Baghdad (Arabic بيت الحكمة Bayt al-Hikma, lit., House of Wisdom), which contained countless, precious, historical documents. The city would never regain its status as major center of culture and influence.

In 1401, warlord of Turco-Mongol descent Tamerlane (Timur Lenk) invaded Iraq. After the capture of Bagdad, 20,000 of its citizens were massacred. Timur ordered that every soldier should return with at least two severed human heads to show him (many warriors were so scared they killed prisoners captured earlier in the campaign just to ensure they had heads to present to Timur).^[9]

Ottoman Empire

Main articles: Ottoman Empire, Mamluk rule in Iraq, Mesopotamian campaign, and Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire

Later, the Ottoman Turks took Baghdad from the Persians in 1535. The Ottomans lost Baghdad to the Iranian Safavids in 1609, and took it back in 1632. From 1747 to 1831, Iraq was ruled, with short intermissions, by the Mamluk officers of Georgian origin who enjoyed local autonomy from the Sublime Porte.^[10] In 1831, the direct Ottoman rule was imposed and lasted until World War I, during which the Ottomans sided with Germany and the Central Powers.

During World War I the Ottomans were driven from much of the area by the United Kingdom during the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. The British lost 92,000 soldiers in the Mesopotamian campaign. Ottoman losses are unknown but the British captured a total of 45,000 prisoners of war. By the end of 1918 the British had deployed 410,000 men in the area, though only 112,000 were combat troops.

During World War I the British and French divided Western Asia in the Sykes-Picot Agreement. The Treaty of Sèvres, which was ratified in the Treaty of Lausanne, led to the advent of modern Western Asia and Republic of Turkey. The League of Nations granted France mandates over Syria and Lebanon and granted the United Kingdom mandates over Iraq and Palestine (which then consisted of two autonomous regions: Palestine and Transjordan). Parts of the Ottoman Empire on the Arabian Peninsula became parts of what are today Saudi Arabia and Yemen.

British Mandate of Mesopotamia

Main articles: British Mandate of Mesopotamia and Assyrian independence

British troops entering Baghdad.

At the end of World War I, the League of Nations granted the area to the United Kingdom as a mandate. It initially formed two former Ottoman vilayets (regions): Baghdad, and Basra into a single country in August 1921. Five years later, in 1926, the northern vilayet of Mosul was added, forming the territorial boundaries of the modern Iraqi state.

For three out of four centuries of Ottoman rule, Baghdad was the seat of administration for the vilayets of Baghdad, Mosul, and Basra. During the mandate, British colonial administrators ruled the country, and through the use of British armed forces, suppressed Arab and Kurdish rebellions against the occupation. They established the Hashemite king, Faisal, who had been forced out of Syria by the French, as their client ruler. Likewise, British authorities selected Sunni Arab elites from the region for appointments to government and ministry offices.^{[specify][11]}

Hashemite monarchy

Main article: Hashemite

Britain granted independence to Iraq in 1932, on the urging of King Faisal, though the British retained military bases and transit rights for their forces. King Ghazi of Iraq ruled as a figurehead after King Faisal's death in 1933, while undermined by attempted military coups, until his death in 1939. The United Kingdom invaded Iraq in 1941, for fear that the government of Rashid Ali al-Gaylani might cut oil supplies to Western nations, and because of his strong ideological leanings to Nazi Germany. A military occupation followed the restoration of the Hashemite monarchy, and the occupation ended on October 26, 1947. The rulers during the occupation and the remainder of the Hashemite monarchy were Nuri al-Said, the autocratic prime minister, who also ruled from 1930–1932, and 'Abd al-Ilah, an advisor to the king Faisal II.

Republic of Iraq

The reinstated Hashemite monarchy lasted until 1958, when it was overthrown by a coup d'etat of the Iraqi Army, known as the 14 July Revolution. The coup brought Brigadier General Abdul Karim Qassim to power. He withdrew from the Baghdad Pact and established friendly relations with the Soviet Union, but his government lasted only until 1963, when it was overthrown by Colonel Abdul Salam Arif. Salam Arif died in 1966 and his brother, Abdul Rahman Arif, assumed the presidency. In 1968, Rahman Arif was overthrown by the Arab Socialist Baath Party. This movement gradually came under the control of Saddam Hussein 'Abd al-Majid al Tikriti, who acceded to the presidency and control of the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC), then Iraq's supreme executive body, in July 1979, while killing many of his opponents.

Saddam Hussein

Main article: Saddam Hussein

Saddam Hussein 'Abd al-Majid al Tikriti, President of Iraq, 1979-2003.

In 1979, Saddam Hussein took power as Iraqi President, after killing and arresting his leadership rivals. Shortly after taking power, the political situation in Iraq's neighbour Iran changed drastically after the success of the Islamic Revolution of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, which resulted in a Shi'ite Muslim theocratic state being established. This was seen as a dangerous change in the eyes of the Iraqi government, as Iraq too had a Shi'ite majority and was ruled by Hussein's government which, apart from having numerous Sunnis occupying leading positions, had a pan-Arab but non-religious ideology. This left the country's Shiite population split between the members and supporters of the Ba'ath Party, and those who sympathised with the Iranian position. In 1980, Hussein claimed that Iranian forces were trying to topple his government^{[citation needed]} and declared war on Iran. Saddam Hussein supported the Iranian Islamic socialist organization called the People's Mujahedin of Iran which opposed the Iranian government. During the Iran-Iraq War Iraqi forces attacked Iranian soldiers and civilians with chemical weapons. Hussein's regime was notorious for its human rights abuses; a well-known example is the Al-Anfal campaign^[12][13][14] as well as attacks on Kurd civilians inside Iraq, such as the Halabja massacre, as punishment for elements of Kurdish support of Iran. The war ended in stalemate in 1988, largely due to American and Western support for Iraq. This was part of the US policy of "dual containment" of Iraq and Iran.

Dead Iraqi Kurds of Halabja in 1988 after they were attacked by Iraqi armed forces which used poison gas to massacre the civilian population.

Under Saddam Hussein's rule, a number of cultural projects were undertaken. The ruins of Babylon were rebuilt to represent the ancient city as seen here.

In 1977, the Iraqi government ordered the construction of Osirak (also spelled Osiraq) at the Al Tuwaitha Nuclear Research Center, 18 km (11 miles) south-east of Baghdad. It was a 40 MW light-water nuclear materials testing reactor (MTR). In 1981, Israeli aircraft bombed the facility, in order to prevent the country from using the reactor for creation of nuclear weapons.

Main article: Gulf War

In 1990, faced with economic disaster following the end of the Iran-Iraq War, Saddam Hussein looked to the oil-rich neighbour of Kuwait as a target to invade to use its resources and money to rebuild Iraq's economy. The Iraqi government claimed that Kuwait was illegally slant drilling its oil pipelines into Iraqi territory, a practice which it demanded be stopped; Kuwait rejected the notion that it was slant drilling, and Iraq followed this in August 1990 with the invasion of Kuwait. Upon successfully occupying Kuwait, Hussein declared that Kuwait had ceased to exist and it was to be part of Iraq, against heavy objections from many countries and the United Nations.

The UN agreed to pass sanctions against Iraq and demanded its immediate withdrawal from Kuwait. Iraq refused and the UN Security Council in 1991 unanimously voted for military action against Iraq. The United Nations Security Council, under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter, adopted Resolution 678, authorizing U.N. member states to use "all necessary means" to "restore international peace and security in the area." The United States, which had enormous vested interests in the oil supplies of the Western Asia,^{[citation needed]} led an international coalition into Kuwait and Iraq. The coalition forces entered the war with more advanced weaponry than that of Iraq, though Iraq's army was one of the largest armed forces in Western Asia at the time. Despite being a large of military force, the Iraqi army was no match for the advanced weaponry of the coalition forces and the air superiority that the U.S. Air Force provided. Iraq responded to the invasion by launching SCUD missile attacks against Israel and Saudi Arabia. Hussein hoped that by attacking Israel, the Israeli military would be drawn into the war, which he believed would rally anti-Israeli sentiment in neighbouring Arab countries and cause those countries to support Iraq. However, Hussein's gamble failed, as Israel reluctantly accepted a U.S. demand to remain out of the conflict to avoid inflaming tensions. The Iraqi armed forces were quickly destroyed, and Hussein eventually accepted the inevitable and ordered a withdrawal of Iraqi forces from Kuwait. Before the forces were withdrawn, however, Hussein ordered them to sabotage Kuwait's oil wells, which resulted in hundreds of wells being set ablaze, causing an economic and ecological disaster in Kuwait.

The aftermath of the war saw the Iraqi military, especially its air force, destroyed. In return for peace, Iraq was forced to accept "no-fly zones," dismantle all chemical and biological weapons it possessed, and end any attempt to create or purchase nuclear weapons, to be assured by the allowing UN weapons inspectors to evaluate the dismantlement of such weapons. Finally, Iraq would face sanctions if it disobeyed any of the demands.

Shortly after the war ended in 1991, Shia Muslim Iraqis engaged in protests against Hussein's regime, but Hussein responded with violent repression against Shia Muslims, and the protests came to an end.^{[citation needed]} After the war, Iraq on a number of occasions throughout the 1990s was accused of breaking its obligations, including the discovery in 1993 of a plan to assassinate former President George H. W. Bush, and the removal of UN weapon inspectors in 1998 (the Iraqi government claimed that it suspected that some inspectors were spies for the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency)^{[citation needed]}. As a result of these violations, economic sanctions were imposed upon Iraq.

It is estimated more than 500,000 Iraqi children died as a result of the sanctions.^[15][16] Critics, particularly neoconservatives in the United States after 1998, claimed that containment of Iraq through sanctions without weapons inspectors in the area was sufficient to prevent Iraq from rebuilding its weapons of mass destruction and demanded a hardline approach to Iraq, demanding compliance with inspections on penalty of war.^{[citation needed]} The Bush administration made a number of allegations against Iraq, including that Iraq was acquiring uranium from Niger and that Iraq had secret weapons laboratories in trailers and isolated facilities throughout Iraq.^{[citation needed]}; as of June 2008, none of these allegations have proven true. Saddam Hussein, under pressure from the U.S. and the U.N., finally agreed to allow weapons inspectors to return to Iraq in 2002, but by that time the Bush administration had already begun pushing for war.

Invasion by American-led Coalition forces

Downtown Baghdad monument of Saddam Hussein vandalized by Iraqis shortly after the invasion of Coalition forces in April 2003.

Main article: 2003 invasion of Iraq

Further information: Iraq War

On March 20, 2003, a United States-organized coalition invaded Iraq, with the stated reason that Iraq had failed to abandon its nuclear and chemical weapons development program in violation of U.N. Resolution 687. The United States asserted that because Iraq was in material breach of Resolution 687, the armed forces authorization of Resolution 678 was revived. The United States further justified the invasion by claiming that Iraq had or was developing weapons of mass destruction and stating a desire to remove an oppressive dictator from power and bring democracy to Iraq. In his State of the Union Address on January 29, 2002, President George W. Bush declared that Iraq was a member of the "Axis of Evil", and that, like North Korea and Iran, Iraq's attempt to acquire weapons of mass destruction posed a serious threat to U.S. national security. Bush added,

Iraq continues to flaunt its hostilities toward America and to support terror. The Iraqi regime has plotted to develop anthrax, and nerve gas, and nuclear weapons for over a decade... This is a regime that agreed to international inspections — then kicked out inspectors. This is a regime that has something to hide from the civilized world... By seeking weapons of mass destruction, these regimes [Iran, Iraq and North Korea] pose a grave and growing danger. They could provide these arms to terrorists, giving them the means to match their hatred."^[17]

However, according to a comprehensive U.S. government report, no weapons of mass destruction have been found since the invasion.^[18] Yet, there are news reports which contradict this.^[19]

Post-invasion

Main articles: Post-invasion Iraq, 2003–present, Insurgency in Iraq, and Civil war in Iraq

Occupation zones in Iraq after invasion.

Following the invasion, the United States established the Coalition Provisional Authority to govern Iraq.^[20] Government authority was transferred to an Iraqi Interim Government in June 2004, and a permanent government was elected in October 2005. More than 140,000 Coalition troops remain in Iraq.

Some studies have placed the number of civilians deaths as high as 655,000 (see The Lancet study), although most studies have put the number much lower; the Iraq Body Count project has a figure of less than 10% of The Lancet Study, though IBC organizers acknowledge that their statistics are an undercount as they base their information off of media-confirmed deaths. The website of the Iraq body count states, "Our maximum therefore refers to reported deaths - which can only be a sample of true deaths unless one assumes that every civilian death has been reported. It is likely that many if not most civilian casualties will go unreported by the media."^[21].

After the invasion, al-Qaeda took advantage of the insurgency to entrench itself in the country concurrently with an Arab-Sunni led insurgency and sectarian violence.

On December 30, 2006, Saddam Hussein was hanged.^[22] Hussein's half-brother and former intelligence chief Barzan Hassan and former chief judge of the Revolutionary Court Awad Hamed al-Bandar were likewise executed on January 15, 2007;^[23] as was Taha Yassin Ramadan, Saddam's former deputy and former vice-president (originally sentenced to life in prison but later to death by hanging), on March 20, 2007.^[24] Ramadan was the fourth and last man in the al-Dujail trial to die by hanging for crimes against humanity.

At the Anfal genocide trial, Saddam's cousin Ali Hassan al-Majid (aka Chemical Ali), former defense minister Sultan Hashim Ahmed al-Tay, and former deputy Hussein Rashid Mohammed were sentenced to hang for their role in the Al-Anfal Campaign against the Kurds on June 24, 2007.^{[citation needed]}

Acts of sectarian violence have led to claims of ethnic cleansing in Iraq, and there have been many attacks on Iraqi minorities such as the Yezidis, Mandeans, Assyrians and others.^[25]

Although violence has declined from the summer of 2007,^[26] the U.N. reported of a cholera outbreak in Iraq.^[27]

The mandate of the multinational force in Iraq, last extended by UN resolution 1790, will end on December 31, 2008. The Independent has reported that the US is seeking a “strategic alliance” giving US forces broad freedom in continuing to operate in Iraq.^[28]

Iraqi diaspora

Main articles: Iraqi diaspora and Refugees of Iraq

The dispersion of native Iraqis to other countries is known as the Iraqi diaspora. There have been many large-scale waves of emigration from Iraq, beginning early in the regime of Saddam Hussein and continuing through to 2007. The UN High Commission for Refugees has estimated that nearly two million Iraqis have fled the country in recent years, mostly to Jordan and Syria.^[29] Although some expatriates returned to Iraq after the 2003 invasion, the flow had virtually stopped by 2006.^[30]

In addition to the 2 million Iraqis who fled to neighbouring countries, the Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre estimates the number of people currently displaced within the country at 1.9 million.^[31]

Roughly 40% of Iraq's middle class is believed to have fled, the U.N. said. Most are fleeing systematic persecution and have no desire to return.^[32] Refugees are mired in poverty as they are generally barred from working in their host countries.^[33][34]

In recent times the Diaspora seems to be reversing with the increased security of the last few months, and the Iraqi government claims that so far 46,000 refugees have returned to their homes in October of 2007 alone.^[35].

Government and politics

Government

Main article: Federal government of Iraq

The federal government of Iraq is defined under the current Constitution as an Islamic, democratic, federal parliamentary republic. The federal government is composed of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches, as well as numerous independent commissions. Aside from the federal government, there are regions (made of one or more governorates), governorates, and districts within Iraq with jurisdiction over various matters as defined by law.

Regions, governorates and districts

Main articles: Regions of Iraq, Governorates of Iraq, and Districts of Iraq

Currently, Kurdistan is the only legally defined region within Iraq, with its own government and quasi-official militia, the Peshmerga. Iraq itself is divided into eighteen governorates (or provinces) (Arabic: muhafadhat, singular - muhafadhah, Kurdish: پاریزگه Pârizgah). The governorates are subdivided into districts (or qadhas).

The following governorates are within the region Iraqi Kurdistan:

• Dahuk
• Arbil
• Sulaymaniyah

Politics

Jalal Talabani, the sanctioned President of Iraq.

Main article: Politics of Iraq

Iraq was under Baath Party rule from 1968 to 2003; in 1979 Saddam Hussein took control and remained president until 2003 after which he was unseated by a US-led invasion.

On October 15, 2005, more than 63% of eligible Iraqis came out across the country to vote on whether to accept or reject the new constitution. On October 25, the vote was certified and the constitution passed with a 78% overall majority, with the percentage of support varying widely between the country's territories.^[36] The new constitution had overwhelming backing among the Shia and Ķurdish communities, but was overwhelmingly rejected by Arab Sunnis. Three majority Arab Sunni provinces rejected it (Salah ad Din with 82% against, Ninawa with 55% against, and Al Anbar with 97% against).

Under the terms of the constitution, the country conducted fresh nationwide parliamentary elections on December 15 to elect a new government. The overwhelming majority of all three major ethnic groups in Iraq voted along ethnic lines, turning this vote into more of an ethnic census than a competitive election, and setting the stage for the division of the country along ethnic lines.

Iraqi politicians have been under significant threat by the various factions that have promoted violence as a political weapon. The ongoing violence in Iraq has been incited by an amalgam of religious extremists that believe an Islamic Caliphate should rule, old sectarian regime members that had ruled under Saddam that want back the power they had, and Iraqi nationalists that are fighting the U.S. military presence.

Iraq has number of ethnic minority groups in Iraq: Kurds, Assyrians, Mandeans, Iraqi Turkmen, Shabaks and Roma. These groups have not enjoyed equal status with the majority Arab populations throughout Iraq's eighty-five year history. Since the establishment of the "no-fly zones" following the Gulf War of 1990–1991, the situation of the Kurds has changed as they have established their own autonomous region. The remainder of these ethnic groups continue to suffer discrimination on religious or ethnic grounds.

In 2008, the U.S. pressured Iraq to enter an alliance with imposing conditions. If Iraq enters this alliance, the U.S. plans to establish 50 military bases in Iraq that will be stationed with U.S. troops. U.S. personnel will also enjoy full legal immunity and the U.S. will not be required to notify the Iraqi government when or how many of its troops enter or leave the country.^[37]

Economy

Main article: Economy of Iraq

An old 50 dinar bill

Iraq's economy is dominated by the oil sector, which has traditionally provided about 95% of foreign exchange earnings. In the 1980s financial problems caused by massive expenditures in the eight-year war with Iran and damage to oil export facilities by Iran led the government to implement austerity measures, borrow heavily, and later reschedule foreign debt payments. Iraq suffered economic losses from the war of at least US$100 billion. After hostilities ended in 1988, oil exports gradually increased with the construction of new pipelines and restoration of damaged facilities. A combination of low oil prices, repayment of war debts (estimated at around US$3 billion a year) and the costs of reconstruction resulted in a serious financial crisis which was the main short term motivation for the invasion of Kuwait.

On November 20, 2004, the Paris Club of creditor nations agreed to write off 80% ($33 billion) of Iraq's $42 billion debt to Club members. Iraq's total external debt was around $120 billion at the time of the 2003 invasion, and had grown by $5 billion by 2004. The debt relief will be implemented in three stages: two of 30% each and one of 20%.^[38]

At the end of 2005, and in the first half of 2006, Iraq implemented a restructuring of about $20 billion of commercial debt claims on terms comparable to that of its November 2004 Paris Club agreement (i.e. with an 80% writeoff). Iraq offered to its larger claimants a U.S. dollar denominated bond maturing in 2028. Smaller commercial claimants received a cash settlement of comparable value.

Reconstruction

Main article: Reconstruction of Iraq

Demographics

Main article: Demography of Iraq

An April 2008 estimate of the total Iraqi population is 28,221,181.^[39]

Seventy-five to eighty percent of Iraq's population are Arabs; the other major ethnic groups are the Kurds at 15-20%,^[40] Assyrians, Iraqi Turkmen and others (5%),^[41] who mostly live in the north and northeast of the country. Other distinct groups are Persians and Armenians. About 20,000 ^[42] Marsh Arabs live in southern Iraq.

Arabic and Kurdish are official languages. Assyrian and Turkmen are official languages in areas where the Assyrians and Iraqi Turkmen are located respectively. Armenian and Persian are also spoken but to a lesser extent. English is the most commonly spoken Western language.

Religious composition includes:

• Muslim, 97%; Christian or other, 3%.^[43]

There are no official figures available, mainly due to the highly politically charged nature of the subject. Two estimates of the Muslim proportions of the population are:

• Shi'a as much as 60%, Sunni about 40% (source: Britannica, Religion section of Iraq article).

Shi'a 60%-65%, Sunni 32%-37% (source: CIA World Fact Book).

The Shi'a are mostly Arabs, some are Turkmen and Faili Kurds, and almost all are Twelver school. Sunnis are composed of Arabs, Turkmen who are Hanafi school and Kurds who are Shafi school.

According to most western sources the majority of Iraqis are Shi'ite Arab Muslims (around 60%), and Sunnis represent about 40% of the population made up of Arabs, Kurds and Turkmen. Sunnis hotly dispute these figures, including an ex-Iraqi Ambassador,^[44] referring to American sources.^[45] They claim that many reports or sources only include Arab Sunnis as 'Sunni', missing out the Kurdish and Turkmen Sunnis.

Ethnic Assyrians (most of whom are adherents of the Chaldean Catholic Church, Syriac Orthodox Church and the Assyrian Church of the East) account for most of Iraq's Christian population, along with Armenians. Bahá'ís, Estimates for the numbers of Christians suggest a decline from 8-10% 60 years ago to 5% at the turn of the century to 3% in 2008. About 600,000 have fled to Syria, Iraq or other countries or relocated to Kurdish controlled areas. Mandaeans, Shabaks, and Yezidis also exist. Most Kurds are Sunni Muslims, although the Faili (Feyli) Kurds are largely Shi'a.

As of November 4, 2006, the UNHCR estimated that 1.8 million Iraqis had been displaced to neighboring countries, and 1.6 million were displaced internally, with nearly 100,000 Iraqis fleeing to Syria and Jordan each month.^[46] A May 25, 2007 article notes that in the past seven months only 69 people from Iraq have been granted refugee status in the United States.^[47]

Culture

Main article: Culture of Iraq

In the most recent millennium, what is now Iraq has been made up of five cultural areas: Kurdish in the north centered on Arbil, Sunni Islamic Arabs in the center around Baghdad, Shi'a Islamic Arabs in the south centered on Basra, the Assyrians, a Christian people, living in various cities in the north, and the Marsh Arabs, a nomadic people, who live on the marshlands of the central river. There are also the Bedouin tribes primarily in southern and western Iraq, with smaller groups scattered throughout the country. Markets and bartering are the common form of trade.

Music

Kathem Al Saher, a well known Iraqi born pop singer, songwriter, and musician.

Main articles: Music of Iraq, Kurdish music, and Assyrian music

Iraq is known primarily for an instrument called the oud (similar to a lute) and a rebab (similar to a fiddle); its stars include Ahmed Mukhtar and the Assyrian Munir Bashir. Until the fall of Saddam Hussein, the most popular radio station was the Voice of Youth. It played a mix of western rock, hip hop and pop music, all of which had to be imported via Jordan due to international economic sanctions. Iraq has also produced a major pan-Arab pop star-in-exile in Kathem Al Saher, whose songs include Ladghat E-Hayya, which was banned for its racy lyrics.

Cuisine

Stuffed Masgouf ready for roasting in the oven

Main article Cuisine of Iraq

The Iraqi cuisine is generally a heavy cuisine with more spices than most Arab cuisines. Iraq's main food crops include wheat, barley, rice, vegetables, and dates. Vegetables include eggplant, okra, potatoes, and tomatoes. Beans such as chickpeas and lentils are also quite common. Common meats in Iraqi cooking are lamb and beef; fish and poultry are also used. Soups and stews are often prepared and served with rice and vegetables. Although Iraq is not a coastal area, the population is used to consuming fish, however, freshwater fish is more common than saltwater fish. Masgouf is one of the most popular dishes. Biryani although influenced by the Indian cuisine, is much milder with a different mixture of spices and a wider variety of vegetables including potatoes, peas, carrots and onions among others. Dolma is also one of the popular dishes. The Iraqi cuisine is famous for its extremely tender kabab as well as its tikka. A wide verity of spices pickles and Amba are also extensively used.

Sport

Main article: Sport in Iraq

See also

Main article: List of Iraq-related topics

Major topics in Iraq Geography Governorates • Districts • Notable Places • Syrian Desert • Zagros Mountains • Euphrates • Tigris • Umm Qasr • Al-Faw Peninsula • Shatt al-Arab • Al-Jazira • Lake Hammar History Ancient Mesopotamia (Fertile Crescent) • Sumer • Akkadian Emipre • Babylonia and Assyria • Chaldea • Nebuchadrezzar II • Persian Empire • Islamic conquest of Persia and Arab Empire • Ottoman Empire • British Mandate • Saddam Hussein • Persian Gulf War • Invasion of Kuwait • Sanctions • 2003 invasion • Post Invasion (Insurgency) Government Constitution • Legislative branch (Speaker) • Executive branch (President · Council of Ministers · Prime Minister) • Judiciary • Government since 2006 Politics Political Parties • Minority Politics • Elections • Security Forces (Army · Navy · Air Force · Police) • Foreign relations • Human Rights • Foreign aid • War Conflicts • Weapons of mass destruction • Democracy • Flag Economy Iraqi Dinar • Stock Exchange • Central Bank • Oil • Communications • Transportation • Reconstruction Society Demographics • Religion (Islam · Christianity · Judaism · Tribes) • Language (Arabic · Kurdish · Turkish · Assyrian) • Education • Health • Diaspora • Postage stamps • Sports • Music • Cuisine • Gay rights • Mass graves Portal

Iraq portal

Iraq War portal

References

Further reading

• Interview with Refugees International's Sean Garcia on the plight of hundreds of thousands of Iraqi refugees [2]
• Shadid, Anthony 2005. Night Draws Near. Henry Holt and Co., NY, U.S. ISBN 0-8050-7602-6
• Hanna Batatu, "The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary Movements of Iraq", Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978
• A Dweller in Mesopotamia, being the adventures of an official artist in the garden of Eden, by Donald Maxwell, 1921. (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & layered PDF format)
• By Desert Ways to Baghdad, by Louisa Jebb (Mrs. Roland Wilkins) With illustrations and a map, 1908 (1909 ed). (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & layered PDF format)

External links

Government

• Iraqi Presidency Website http://www.iraqipresidency.net
• Iraqi Government Website http://www.cabinet.iq
• Iraqi Parliament Website http://www.parliament.iq
• Ministry of Foreign Affairs http://www.mofa.gov.iq
• Ministry of Defense http://www.iraqmod.org
• Ministry of Oil http://www.oil.gov.iq
• Ministry of Trade http://www.mot.gov.iq
• Ministry of Industry http://www.industry.gov.iq
• Ministry of Higher Education http://www.mohesr.gov.iq
• Kurdistan Regional Government
• New Iraqi government structure (PDF) (As of July 17, 2006)

Overviews

• Energy Information Administration - Energy Profile of Iraq
• Baghdad's Golden Period
• al-Bab - Iraq
• Encyclopaedia Britannica Iraq Country Page
• BBC News Country Profile - Iraq
• CIA World Factbook - Iraq
• US State Department - Iraq includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports
• Read Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding Iraq
• Iraq Country Profile from Reuters AlertNet
• Country Briefing: Iraq from The Economist

News

• Focus on Iraq Daily News on Iraq
• Iraq News and Iraqi views from Electronic Iraq
• News in Depth from the Financial Times
• Diplomacy Monitor-Iraq
• IPS Inter Press Service Independent news about Iraq
• Iraqis react with joy, anger to Hussein death sentence CNN story on Hussein's death sentence
• Hometown Baghdad Documentary series shot by an all-Iraqi crew. Tells the stories of three young people trying to survive in Baghdad.

Other

• Operation Iraqi Children
• Iraq Image, a cultural resource on Iraq cities and locations
• Iraqi Truth Project
• Juan Cole, a leading scholar and public intellectual
• The Ground Truth Project -- A series of exclusive interviews and other resources capturing the voices of Iraqis, aid workers, military personnel and others who have spent significant time on-the-ground in Iraq.
• Iraq travel guide from Wikitravel
• Alternate wiki article about Iraq
• The World Monuments Fund's Iraq Cultural Heritage Conservation Initiative
• Education for Peace in Iraq Center (EPIC) -- A Washington DC-based nonprofit organization promoting a free and secure Iraq
• Amnesty International Report on Iraq
• Internal Displacement in Iraq - Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre
• Coalition Provisional Authority Now-defunct occupation authority; site is archived
• Iraq Law from the University of Pittsburgh’s Jurist project
• 1900–2000 a history of Iraq
• US Embassy in Baghdad, Iraq
• Iraqi Familiarization Guide - (546 kilobyte PDF file)
• Short Guide to Iraq (WWII U.S. Military Guide)
• Charity Helping the People of Iraq

Geographic locale
Countries of Southwest Asia Armenia · Azerbaijan1 · Bahrain · Cyprus · Georgia1 · Iran · Iraq · Israel · Jordan · Kuwait · Lebanon · Northern Cyprus, Turkish Republic of 2 · Oman · Qatar · Saudi Arabia · Syria · Turkey1 · United Arab Emirates · Yemen 1 Has part of its territory in Europe.  2 The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus is not officially recognized by the United Nations, recognized only by Turkey; see Cyprus dispute. Countries of Asia Afghanistan · Armenia · Azerbaijan1 · Bahrain · Bangladesh · Bhutan · Brunei · Burma · Cambodia · People's Republic of China · Republic of China (Taiwan)2 · Cyprus · Egypt3 · Georgia1 · India · Indonesia4 · Iran · Iraq · Israel · Japan · Jordan · Kazakhstan1 · North Korea · South Korea · Kuwait · Kyrgyzstan · Laos · Lebanon · Malaysia · Maldives · Mongolia · Nepal · Oman · Pakistan · Philippines · Qatar · Russia1 · Saudi Arabia · Singapore · Sri Lanka · Syria · Tajikistan · Thailand · East Timor (Timor-Leste)4 · Turkey1 · Turkmenistan · United Arab Emirates · Uzbekistan · Vietnam · Yemen3 For dependent and other territories, see Dependent territory. 1 Partly or significantly in Europe.  2 The Republic of China (Taiwan) is not officially recognized by the United Nations; see Political status of Taiwan. 3 Partly or significantly in Africa.  4 Partly or wholly reckoned in Oceania. Countries bordering the Persian Gulf      Bahrain  Iran  Iraq  Kuwait  Oman  Qatar  Saudi Arabia  United Arab Emirates Countries and territories bordering the Indian Ocean Africa Comoros · Djibouti · Eritrea · Kenya · Madagascar · Mauritius · Mayotte · Mozambique · Seychelles · Somalia · Somaliland · South Africa · Sudan · Tanzania Asia Bahrain · Bangladesh · Burma · Christmas Island · Cocos (Keeling) Islands · India · Indonesia · Iran · Iraq · Kuwait · Malaysia · Maldives · Oman · Pakistan · Qatar · Saudi Arabia · Sri Lanka · Thailand · United Arab Emirates · Yemen Oceania Australia · Christmas Island · Cocos (Keeling) Islands Islands Bahrain · British Indian Ocean Territory · Christmas Island · Cocos (Keeling) Islands · Madagascar · Maldives · Mauritius · Mayotte · Seychelles · Sri Lanka

International membership
Arab League Members Algeria · Bahrain · Comoros · Djibouti · Egypt · Iraq · Jordan · Kuwait · Lebanon · Libya · Mauritania · Morocco · Oman · Palestine · Qatar · Saudi Arabia · Sudan · Somalia · Syria · Tunisia · United Arab Emirates · Yemen Observers Eritrea · India · Venezuela The Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) Members Afghanistan · Albania · Algeria · Azerbaijan · Bahrain · Bangladesh · Benin · Burkina Faso · Brunei · Cameroon · Chad · Comoros · Côte d'Ivoire · Djibouti · Egypt · Gabon · Gambia · Guinea · Guinea-Bissau · Guyana · Indonesia · Iran · Iraq · Jordan · Kuwait · Kazakhstan · Kyrgyzstan · Lebanon · Libya · Maldives · Malaysia · Mali · Mauritania · Morocco · Mozambique · Niger · Nigeria · Oman · Pakistan · Palestine · Qatar · Saudi Arabia · Senegal · Sierra Leone · Somalia · Sudan · Suriname · Syria · Tajikistan · Turkey · Tunisia · Togo · Turkmenistan · Uganda · Uzbekistan · United Arab Emirates · Yemen Observers Countries and territories Bosnia and Herzegovina · Central African Republic · Russia · Thailand · Northern Cyprus (as Turkish Cypriot State) Muslim communities Moro National Liberation Front International organizations Economic Cooperation Organization · African Union · Arab League · Non-Aligned Movement · United Nations Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) Algeria • Angola • Ecuador • Iran • Iraq • Kuwait • Libya • Nigeria • Qatar • Saudi Arabia • United Arab Emirates • Venezuela Afro-Asiatic-speaking nations Berber      Algeria  Egypt  Libya  Mali  Mauritania  Morocco  Niger  Tunisia Chadic      Cameroon  Central African Republic  Chad  Niger  Nigeria Cushitic     Cushitic  Djibouti  Eritrea  Ethiopia  Kenya  Somalia Beja  Egypt  Eritrea  Sudan Egyptian    Egypt Omotic  Ethiopia Semitic     Arabic / Maltese  Algeria  Bahrain  Egypt  Iraq  Israel  Jordan  Kuwait  Lebanon  Libya  Malta  Mauritania  Morocco  Oman  PNA  Qatar  Saudi Arabia  Sudan1  Syria  Tunisia  UAE  W. Sahara  Yemen Northwest Semitic2  Iraq  Israel  Syria South Semitic  Eritrea  Ethiopia  Oman  Yemen 1 excluding Southern Sudan.    2 Aramaic and Hebrew.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia; from the article "Iraq". Image Credit.

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