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Universal

Specialty Definition: Universal

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

For the concept of a universal in metaphysics, see Universal (metaphysics).

Universal may also refer to Universal Studios or Universal Music (owned by the same parent company, Vivendi).

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Universal."

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Universal (metaphysics)

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Universals (used as a noun) are either properties, relations, or types, but not classeses. It is worth noting that all four items are generally considered abstract, nonphysical entities. They are at least so considered by Platonic realists; there are others who use the terminology of properties, relations, etc., but who do not wish to be realists. Part of the difficulty, indeed, of understanding this problem is understanding the complex and confusing relations between theory and language, and what the use of language does, or does not, imply.

Universals are contrasted with individuals. 'Universal' used as an adjective is contrasted with particular and concrete.

Consider some examples of universals: there are types, like dog or "doghood"; properties, like red or redness; and relations, like betweenness or "being between"; those are all universals. Any particular dog, particular red thing, or particular object that is between other objects is not a universal, but a particular, and instances of universals (or objects that somehow bear universals). Doghood, redness, and betweenness are common to many different things. So a universal is something that can have instances; but it does not make sense to talk about an instance of a particular.

Realists invite us to think of universals as the referents of general terms. In other words, they are what we refer to, when we use general words like "doghood," "redness," and "betweenness." By contrast, we refer to particulars by using proper names, like "Fido," or definite descriptions that pick out just one thing, like "that apple on the table."

There is an ancient problem in metaphysics concerning what universals are supposed to be, or (alternatively characterized) whether they exist; this is called the problem of universals.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Universal (metaphysics)."

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Universal property

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

In category theory, abstract algebra and other fields of mathematics, frequently constructions are defined or characterised by an abstract property which requires the existence of a unique morphism under certain conditions. These properties are called universal properties.

In the sequel, we will give a general treatment of universal properties. It is advisable to study several examples first: product of groups and direct sum, free group, product topology, Stone-Čech compactification, tensor product, inverse limit and direct limit, kernel and cokernel, pullback, pushout and equalizer.

Universal constructions

Let C and D be categories, F : C -> D be a functor, and X an object of D. A universal morphism from F to X consists of an object A_X of C and a morphism φ_X : F(A_X) -> X in D, such that the following universal property is satisfied:

Whenever U is an object of C and φ : F(U) -> X is a morphism in D, then there exists a unique morphism ψ : U -> A_X such that φ_X F(ψ) = φ.

The existence of the morphism ψ intuitively expresses the fact that A_X is "large enough" or "general enough", while the uniqueness of the morphism ensures that A_X is "not too large".

From the definition, it follows directly that the pair (A_X, φ_X) is determined up to a unique isomorphism by X, in the following sense: if A'_X is another object of C and φ'_X : F(A'_X) -> X is another morphism which has the universal property, then there exists a unique isomorphism f : A_X -> A'_X such that φ'_X F(f) = φ_X.

More generally, if φ_X1 : F(A_X1) -> X₁ and φ_X2 : F(A_X2) -> X₂ are two universal morphisms, and h : X₁ -> X₂ is a morphism in D, then there exists a unique morphism A_h: A_X1 -> A_X2 such that φ_X2 F(A_h) = φ_X1.

Therefore, if every object X of D admits a universal morphism, then the assignment X |-> A_X and h |-> A_h defines a covariant functor from D to C, and this functor is the right-adjoint of F.

Co-universal constructions

The dual concept of a co-universal construction also exists: it assigns to every object X of D an object B_X of C and a morphism ρ_X: X -> F(B_X) in D, such that the following universal property is satisfied:

Whenever U is an object of C and ρ : X -> F(U) is a morphism in D, then there exists a unique morphism σ : B_X -> U such that F(σ) ρ_X = ρ.

If B_X exists for every X in D, then this co-universal constructions also defines a covariant functor from D to C, the so-called left-adjoint of F.

It is important to realize that not every functor F has a right-adjoint or a left adjoint; in other words: while one may always write down a universal property defining objects A_X and B_X for every X, that does not mean that such objects also exist.

A worked example: kernels

Suppose C is a category with zero morphisms and f : A → B is a morphism in C. A kernel of f is any morphism k: K → A such that:

• f k is the zero morphism from K to B;
• Given any morphism k': K' → A such that f k' is the zero morphism, there is a unique morphism u: K' → K such that k u = k'.

To understand this in the framework of the general setting above, we define the category D of all morphisms of C. The objects of D are morphisms φ : R → S in C, and a morphism from φ : R → S to ψ : U → V is given by a pair (r,s) of morphisms r : R → U and s : S → V such that s φ = ψ r.

The functor F : C → D maps an object K of C to the zero morphism 0_KK : K → K and a morphism r : K → L to the pair (r,r).

Now, given a morphism f : A → B in the category C (i.e. an object of the category D) and an object K of C, a morphism from F(K) to f is given by a pair (k,l) such that f k = l 0_KK = 0_KB, which is exactly what shows up in the universal property of kernels given above. The abstract "universal morphism from F to f" is nothing but the universal property of a kernel.

What is it good for?

Once one recognizes a certain construction as given by a universal property, one gains several benefits:

• Universal properties define objects up to isomorphism; one strategy to prove that two objects are isomorphic is therefore to show that they satisfy the same universal property.
• The concrete details of a given construction may be messy, but if the construction satisfies a universal property, one can forget all those details: all there is to know about the construct is already contained in the universal property. Proofs often become short and elegant if the universal property is used rather than the concrete details.
• If the universal construction can be carried out for every X in D, then we know that we obtain a functor from D to C. (So for example, forming kernels is functorial: every morphism (u,v) from the morphism f to the morphism g induces a morphism from the kernel of f to the kernel of g.)
• Furthermore, this functor is a right or left adjoint of F, depending on whether the construction is universal or co-universal. But right adjoints commute with limits and left adjoints commute with colimits! (So we can for example immediately conclude that the kernel of a product of maps is equal to the product of the kernels.)

History

Universal properties of various topological constructions were presented by Pierre Samuel in 1948. They were later used extensively by Bourbaki. The closely related concept of adjoint functors was introduced independently by Daniel Kan in 1958.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Universal property."

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Universal quantification

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

In predicate logic, universal quantification is an attempt to formalise the notion that something (a logical predicate) is true for everything, or every relevant thing. The resulting statement is a universally quantified statement, and we have universally quantified over the predicate. In symbolic logic, the universal quantifier (typically "∀") is the symbol used to denote universal quantification.

Quantification in general is covered in the article Quantification, while this article discusses universal quantification specifically.

Basics

Suppose you wish to say

2·0 = 0 + 0, and 2·1 = 1 + 1, and 2·2 = 2 + 2, etc.

This would seem to be a logical conjunction because of the repeated use of "and". But the "etc" can't be interpreted as a conjunction in formal logic. Instead, rephrase the statement as

For any natural number n, 2·n = n + n.

This is a single statement using universal quantification.

Notice that this statement is really more precise than the original one. It may seem obvious that the phrase "etc" is meant to include all natural numbers, and nothing more, but this wasn't explicitly stated, which is essentially the reason that the phrase couldn't be interpreted formally. In the universal quantification, on the other hand, the natural numbers are mentioned explicitly.

This particular example is true, because you could put any natural number in for n and the statement "2·n = n + n" would be true. In contrast, "For any natural number n, 2·n > 2 + n" is false, because you replace n with, say, 1 and get the false statement "2·1 > 1 + 1". It doesn't matter that "2·n > 2 + n" is true for most natural numbers n; even the existence of a single counterexample is enough to prove the universal quantification false.

On the other hand, "For any composite number n, 2·n > 2 + n" is true, because none of the counterexamples are composite numbers. This indicates the importance of the domain of discourse, which specifies which values n is allowed to take. Further information on using domains of discourse with quantified statements can be found in the Quantification article. But in particular, note that if you wish to restrict the domain of discourse to consist only of those objects that satisfy a certain predicate, then for universal quantification, you do this with a logical conditional. For example, "For any composite number n, 2·n > 2 + n" is logically equivalent to "For any natural number n, if n is composite, then 2·n > 2 + n". Here the "if ... then" construction indicates the logical conditional.

In symbolic logic, we use the universal quantifier "∀" (an upside-down letter "A" in a sans-serif font) to indicate universal quantification. Thus if P(n) is the predicate "2·n > 2 + n" and N is the set of natural numbers, then

is the (false) statement

For any natural number n, 2·n > 2 + n.

Similarly, if Q(n) is the predicate "n is composite", then

is the (true) statement

For any composite number n, 2·n > 2 + n.

Several variations in the notation for quantification (which apply to all forms) can be found in the Quantification article. But there is a special notation used only for universal quantification, which we also give here:

The parentheses indicate universal quantification by default.

Properties

We need a list of algebraic properties of universal quantification, such as distributivity over conjunction, and so on. Also rules of inference.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Universal quantification."

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Universal Studios

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Universal Studios is a famous Hollywood film studio. It was founded by German immigrant Carl Laemmle in 1912. In 1929, Carl Laemmle Jr took over the helm of the studio, and tried to lift the reputation of the low-budget company by spending more on production and talent. The Universal horror classics like Frankenstein (1931), Dracula (1931), and The Mummy (1932) were the result of this move, but they were not financially successful for the company, and they returned to mass-produced dreck for some time thereafter.

In 1952, the studio was acquired by the record company Decca, who then sold it to MCA in 1962. Universal finally began to prosper, with the leadership of Lew Wasserman. This also marked Universal's entry into the television programming business; MCA owned Revue Studios, one of the biggest TV studios in Hollywood, which at the time produced such hits as Leave It to Beaver, Alfred Hitchcock Presents, and Wagon Train. The studio was renamed Universal Television, and made its name producing crime dramas and action/adventure series, such as the 1960s Dragnet revival, Columbo, Baretta, Knight Rider, Quantum Leap, and Law & Order.

Three decades of steady success, with the occasional blockbusters like Jaws and E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial, seemed to poise the studio for great future potential. However, the era of huge media mergers that began in the 1980s and continued in the1990s put pressure on the firm. Wasserman sought and shepherded an alliance with Matsushita Electric (parent of Panasonic and other brands). The cash infusion was helpful, but the corporate culture of the Japanese firm did not mesh easily with the headstrong old Hollywood veterans. Matsushita tired of the battle, and sold a controlling share of the studio to the Seagram company in 1995.

Seagram went on to acquire Polygram and other entertainment properties in order to build a media empire centered on Universal, but stock prices never took off the way they expected. In 1998, Universal's TV studios were spun off to USA Networks, and renamed Studios USA; in 2002, Universal bought back USA's cable and studio holdings, thus reinstating the Universal Television name; Universal retained its pre-1998 TV back catalog through all of this period.

In June of 2000, Universal was acquired by the French company Vivendi, now Vivendi Universal. During this period, the studio was under the leadership of Ron Meyer, Stacey Snider, and Barry Diller.

In October 2003, it was announced that Vivendi would be selling the majority of Universal's holdings (including the studio and theme parks) to General Electric, parent of television network (and longtime Universal Television customer) NBC. As of this writing (late November 2003), the merger is undergoing regulatory approval, and is expected to close in early 2004; when it closes, GE will own 80% of the combined NBC-Universal, with the remaining 20% being distributed to Vivendi Universal shareholders. Vivendi will be keeping Universal Music Group, at least for now; one rumor said that Apple Computer was interested in buying, but at the moment, Vivendi is remaining quiet about possible buyers.

Universal Studios Theme Parks

Universal Studios has long hosted tours of its Hollywood studios to eager California tourists. In 1964, the humble tram tour became a full-blown theme park -- the narrated tram tour still runs through the studio's backlot, showing off the sets and props from a huge variety of Universal movie and TV productions, but the Universal Studios Hollywood park has added some high-tech rides, stunt shows, and attractions.

Universal has since opened theme parks in Florida, Japan(Osaka), and Spain (although without the working studio attached).

External links

• http://www.universalstudios.com/

  Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Universal Studios."

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Universal suffrage

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Universal suffrage (also general suffrage or common suffrage) is the extension of voting privileges to all adults, without distinction to race, sex, belief or social status.

Equal and Common Suffrage was, particular in Northern Europe, the slogan for the Democratic Movement of the late 19th century, unifying Liberalss and Social Democrats.

The Movement for Universal Suffrage was a social, economic and political movement aimed at extending suffrage (the right to vote) to people of all races.

Many societies in the past have denied people the right to vote on the basis of race or ethnicity. Examples of this include the exclusion of people of African descent from voting in apartheid-era South Africa. In the pre-Civil Rights Era American South blacks were technically allowed to vote, but were prevented from exercising the vote by various means. The Ku Klux Klan formed after the Civil War largely to intimidate blacks and prevent them from voting.

Most societies today no longer maintain such provisions, but a few still do. For example, Fiji reserves a certain number of seats in its Parliament for each of its main ethnic groups; these provisions were adopted in order to discriminate against Indians in favour of ethnic Fijians. Pakistan reserves certain seats in parliament for voting by "frontier" tribes.

Universal suffrage has been granted (and been revoked) at various times in various countries throughout the world. (in chronological order):

• Finland -- 1906 (in local elections: 1917)
• Norway -- 1913
• Denmark -- 1915 (with Iceland)
• Ireland -- 1918
• After defeat in World War I
  • Austria -- 1918
  • Germany -- 1918
  • Hungary -- 1918
  • Poland -- 1919
• Luxembourg - 1919
• The Netherlands - 1919
• Sweden -- 1921
• Lithuania -- 1922
• United Kingdom -- 1928
• Spain -- 1931
• France -- 1944
• Italy -- 1945
• Belgium -- 1948
• Greece -- 1952
• Australia -- 1962 (previously not granted to Aboriginees)
• United States -- 1965 (previously not granted to Blacks in all States)
• Portugal -- 1976
• Liechtenstein -- 1984
• Switzerland -- 1990
• South Africa -- 1994

  Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Universal suffrage."

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Universal, Indiana

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Universal is a town located in Vermillion County, Indiana. As of the 2000 census, the town had a total population of 419.

Geography

Universal is located at 39°37'18" North, 87°27'11" West (39.621636, -87.453043)¹. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 0.7 km² (0.3 mi²). 0.7 km² (0.3 mi²) of it is land and none of it is covered by water.

Demographics

As of the census of 2000, there are 419 people, 184 households, and 117 families residing in the town. The population density is 577.8/km² (1,477.5/mi²). There are 207 housing units at an average density of 285.4/km² (729.9/mi²). The racial makeup of the town is 99.52% White, 0.24% African American, 0.24% Native American, 0.00% Asian, 0.00% Pacific Islander, 0.00% from other races, and 0.00% from two or more races. 0.95% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race. There are 184 households out of which 28.8% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 54.9% are married couples living together, 7.6% have a female householder with no husband present, and 36.4% are non-families. 31.5% of all households are made up of individuals and 13.6% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.28 and the average family size is 2.86. In the town the population is spread out with 22.0% under the age of 18, 9.1% from 18 to 24, 32.7% from 25 to 44, 21.7% from 45 to 64, and 14.6% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 37 years. For every 100 females there are 94.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 99.4 males. The median income for a household in the town is $36,042, and the median income for a family is $39,327. Males have a median income of $28,068 versus $25,500 for females. The per capita income for the town is $17,930. 9.3% of the population and 6.0% of families are below the poverty line. Out of the total people living in poverty, 18.3% are under the age of 18 and 6.3% are 65 or older.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Universal, Indiana."

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Universalism

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

In comparative religion, a universalist religion is a religion that is open for inclusion to anyone regardless of ethnicity. Ethnic religions, like ethnicity itself, can be determined not just by genealogy, but by geography, language, and other social boundaries. It is of no relation to universism, an approach to religion that focuses on the nature of the universe itself and excludes faith.

In Christian theology, universalism is the doctrine that all people will eventually be saved and go to heaven when they die. Some universalists believe that some will endure a limited period of punishment before going to heaven. Almost all denominations of Christianity, however, reject universalism as a doctrine.

Although isolated theologians, such as Origen in the 3rd century, have expressed univeralist positions throughout the history of Christianity, universalism bloomed within post-enlightenment liberal Christianity and became popular on the American frontier during the Second Great Awakening in the 19th century. This movement lead to the formation of the Universalist Church of America, which later merged in 1961 with the American Unitarian Association to form the Unitarian Universalist Association. However, because Unitarian Universalism is officially creedless, no member of that denomination is required to believe in the doctrine of universalism.

Early universalists in North America include John Murray and Thomas Potter in 1770. The story goes that God told Potter that he was to go and rescue the one swimming from a boat that had hit a sandbar and that this person would be the one he was waiting for. Murray preached to Potter's neighbours and the word spread like wildfire.

Hosea Ballou, who is sometimes called an ultra-universalist, is often recognized as the great theologian of American Universalism, having written thousands of sermons as well as essays, hymns and treatises.

See also: The problem of Hell

Universalism is also used as a synonym for moral absolutism.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Universalism."

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Universe

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

simple:Universe

For information about the mathematical concept, see Universe (mathematics). For information on the software, see Universe (software)

In the first half of the 20th century, the word Universe was used to mean the whole spacetime continuum in which we exist, together with all the energy and matter within it. Attempts to understand the Universe in this sense, on the largest possible scales, are made in cosmology, a science that has grown from physics and astronomy. During the second half of the 20th century, the development of observational cosmology, also called physical cosmology, led to a split in the meaning of the word Universe between observational cosmologists and theoretical cosmologists, where the former (usually) abandon the hope of observing the whole spacetime continuum, while the latter retain this hope, attempting to find the most reasonable speculations for modelling the whole of spacetime, despite the extreme difficulty in imagining any empirical constraints on these speculations and the risk of declining into metaphysics.

The terms known universe, observable universe, or visible universe are often used to describe the part of the Universe that we can see or otherwise observe. Those who believe it is impossible to observe the whole continuum may use our universe, referring only to that knowable by human beings in particular.

Expansion, Age, Big Bang

The most important result of cosmology, that the Universe is expanding, is derived from redshift observations and quantified by Hubble's Law. Extrapolating this expansion back in time, one approaches a gravitational singularity, a rather abstract mathematical concept, which may or may not correspond to reality. This gives rise to the Big Bang theory, the dominant model in cosmology today. The time=zero of the Big Bang is estimated to have happened about 13.7 billion (13.7 × 10⁹) years ago, with an uncertainty of only 200 million years, according to NASA's Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP).

A fundamental aspect of the Big Bang can be seen today in the observation that the farther away from us galaxies are, the faster they move away from us. It can also be seen in the microwave background radiation which is the much-attenuated radiation that originated soon after the Big Bang. This background radiation is remarkably uniform in all directions, which cosmologists have attempted to explain by an initial period of rapid inflation following the Big Bang.

Size of Universe and observable universe

It is not known whether the Universe is finite or infinite in spatial extent and volume, although the majority of theorists currently favor an finite Universe.

However, the observable universe, consisting of all locations that could have affected us since the Big Bang given the finite speed of light, is certainly finite. The edge of the cosmic light horizon is 14-15B light years distant. The present distance (comoving distance) to the edge of the observable universe is larger, since the universe has been expanding; it is estimated to be about 50 billion light years (4.7E²³km). This would make the comoving volume, of the known universe, equal to 5E³² cubic lightyears (assuming this region is perfectly spherical). The observable universe contains about 7 × 10²² stars, organized in about 10¹⁰ galaxies, which themselves form clusters and superclusters. The number of galaxies may be even larger, based on the Hubble Deep Field observed with the Hubble Space Telescope.

The reader should be warned that both popular and professional research articles in cosmology often use the term "Universe" when they really mean "observable universe". This is because unobservable physical phenomena are philosophically irrelevant to human existence. Thus the term our...

We live in the centre of the observable universe, in apparent contradiction to the Copernican principle which says that the Universe is more or less uniform and it has no distinguished centre. This is simply because light does not travel infinitely fast, and we make observations of the past. As we look further and further away, we see things from epochs (times) closer and closer to the limit of time=zero of the Big bang model. And since light travels at the same speed in any direction towards us, we live at the centre of our observable universe.

Shape of the Universe

An important open question of cosmology is the shape of the universe.

Firstly, whether or not the Universe is flat, i.e. whether the Pythagorean theorem for right triangles is valid on the largest scales. Currently, most cosmologists believe that the observable universe is (nearly) flat, just as the Earth is (nearly) flat.

Secondly, whether or not the Universe is multiply connected. The Universe has no spatial boundary (according to the standard Big bang model), but nevertheless may be spatially finite. This can be understood by a two-dimensional analogy: the Earth's surface has no edge, but nonetheless has a finite area. You can also think of a cylinder, and then let your imagination go free of ordinary space and imagine sticking the two ends of the cylinder together, but without bending the cylinder. This too is a two-dimensional space with a finite area, but, differently to the Earth's surface, it is flat, so it may serve as a better model.

Therefore, strictly speaking, we should call the above mentioned stars and galaxies "images" of stars and galaxies, since it is possible that the Universe is finite and so small that we can see once or several times around it, and the real number of physically distinct stars and galaxies could be a little smaller. There are observations underway to determine whether this is true.

Fate of the Universe

Depending on the average density of matter and energy in the Universe, it will either keep on expanding forever or it will be gravitionally slowed and will eventually collapse back on itself in a "big crunch". Currently the evidence suggests not only that there is insufficient mass/energy to cause a recollapse, but that the expansion of the universe seems to be accelerating and will accelarate for the whole of eternity, see accelerating universe. For a more detailed discussion of other theories, see the ultimate fate of the Universe.

Multiverse

There is some speculation that multiple universes exist in a higher-level multiverse. For example matter that falls into a black hole in this universe could emerge as a big bang starting another universe. However all such ideas are currently not testable and so cannot be regarded as anything more than speculation.

Other terms

Different words have been used throughout history to denote "all of space", including the equivalents in various languages of "heavens", "cosmos" and "world".

Although words like world and its equivalents in other language now almost always refer to the planet Earth, they used to refer to everything that exists - see for example Copernicus - and still sometimes do (as in "the whole wide world").

When speculating about a multiverse, one often thinks of it as consisting of many "universes" (lower case), our Universe being one of them.

External links

• Richard Powell: An Atlas of the Universe, http://www.anzwers.org/free/universe/index.html. A series of images at various scales, with explanations.
• Age of the Universe at Space.Com

  Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Universe."

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Abbreviations & Acronyms: Universal

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Synonyms within Context: Universal

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Modern Usage: Universal

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Commercial Usage: Universal

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Image Slideshow: Universal

Photos: Universal More pictures...

Illustrations: Universal More pictures...

Computer Images: Universal More pictures...

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Photo Album: Universal

Thumbnail	Description & Credit	Thumbnail	Description & Credit
	Ozanam's Universal Instrument. In: "Historical Account of the Plane Table" by A. M. Harrison, 1875. This is a handwritten unpublished manuscript. Library Call Number TA571 .H37 1875. Credit: Treasures of the Library.		A Universal Instrument. Methode de lever les plans et les cartes de terre et de mer : avec toutes sortes d'instrumens & sans instrumens. By Jacques Ozanam. 1750. Plate VIII, page 76. Call Number TA544 .O97 1750. Credit: Treasures of the Library.
	Figure 48. Pettersson universal sampling apparatus devised by the Swedish Professor Otto Pettersson. This instrument would sample plankton, measure the temperature of the water, measure the strength and direction of the current, and sample the water. It was first used in the Skagerrak between 30 and 200 meters depth in January 1904 and afterwards in the Baltic Sea. Credit: Sailing for Science - the NOAA Fleet Then and Now.		Figure 34. Universal current measuring device invented by Otto Petterson in 1904. This instrument was intended to measure current and temperature, as well as collect plankton. Left: in operation. Right: after measurement. This instrument was first tested in the Skagerrak and then in the Baltic Sea between 30 and 200 meters water depth. Credit: Sailing for Science - the NOAA Fleet Then and Now.
	The looped red ribbon became the universal symbol of AIDS awareness.		[Surgical Instruments and Apparatus] : "Our universal operating table," 1874. Credit: National Library of Medicine.
	Ordini Diligenze e Ripari Fatti con Universal Beneficio ... / Inventati e date in luce da Gio: Giacomo De Rossi in Roma ... Credit: National Library of Medicine.		Universal service -- on the farm as well as in the trenches. Credit: Library of Congress.
	The universal scape-goat. Credit: Library of Congress.		Churches in Boston, Mass. or vicinity: Brattle Street, Catholic, Bowdoin Street, and Central Universal. Credit: Library of Congress.
Source: pictures compiled by the editor from various references; see picture credits.

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Digital Photo Gallery: Universal
 

"Universal Studios Entrance 1" by David Sinofksy Commentary: "Universal Studios Entrance."

Source: photographs selected by the editor, with permission from the photographers.

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Familiar Quotations: Universal

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Usage Frequency: Universal

Source: compiled by the editor from several corpora; see credits.

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Usage in Company Names: Universal

Source: compiled by the editor from Icon Group International, Inc.

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Cities: Universal

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