Here

  

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Here

Definition: Here

Here

Adjective

1. Being here now; "is everyone here?"; "present company excepted".

Adverb

1. In or at this place; where the speaker or writer is; "I work here"; "turn here"; "radio waves received here on Earth".

2. In this circumstance or respect or on this point or detail; "what do we have here?"; "here I must disagree".

3. To this place (especially toward the speaker); "come here, please".

4. At this time; now; "we'll adjourn here for lunch and discuss the remaining issues this afternoon".

Noun

1. The present location; this place; "where do we go from here?".

2. Queen of the Olympian gods in ancient Greek mythology; sister and wife of Zeus remembered for her jealously of the many mortal women Zeus fell in love with; identified with Roman Juno.

Source: WordNet 1.7.1 Copyright © 2001 by Princeton University. All rights reserved.
 

Date "here" was first used in popular English literature: sometime before 1010. (references)

Etymology: Here \Here\, adverb [Old English her, Anglo-Saxon akin to Old Saxon, Dutch hier, Old High German hiar, German hier, Icelandic & Gothic, Danish her, Swedish h["a]r; from root of English he. See He.]. (references)

 

Specialty Definition: 12 steps

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

The 12 steps for recovery were first created to aid those who were recovering from alcoholism. Since their original publication, other 12-step programs have adapted them to a variety of addictions.

  1. We admitted we were powerless over alcohol -- that our lives had become unmanageable.
  2. Came to believe that a Power greater than ourselves could restore us to sanity.
  3. Made a decision to turn our will and our lives over to the care of God as we understood Him.
  4. Made a searching and fearless moral inventory of ourselves.
  5. Admitted to God, to ourselves and to another human being the exact nature of our wrongs.
  6. Were entirely ready to have God remove all these defects of character.
  7. Humbly asked Him to remove our shortcomings.
  8. Made a list of all persons we had harmed, and became willing to make amends to them all.
  9. Made direct amends to such people wherever possible, except when to do so would injure them or others.
  10. Continued to take personal inventory and when we were wrong promptly admitted it.
  11. Sought through prayer and meditation to improve our conscious contact with God, as we understood Him, praying only for knowledge of His will for us and the power to carry that out.
  12. Having had a spiritual awakening as the result of these steps, we tried to carry this message to alcoholics, and to practice these principles in all our affairs.

Source: http://www.alcoholics-anonymous.org/default/en_about_aa_sub.cfm?subpageid=76&pageid=12

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "12 steps."

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400-Series Highway

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

400-Series Highways are a network of controlled-access freeways throughout the Province of Ontario, Canada. They function similar to the Interstate Highway network in the United States or the Autoroute system in the province of Quebec. Modern 400-series highways have very high design standards, high speed limits (100 KM/h with plans to raise it as high as 130 KM/h) and various collision avoidance systems. The standard interchange used on 400-Series Highways, the Parclo A4, was designed by Ontario's Ministry of Transportation to replace the cloverleaf interchange and has since become the standard interchange used on new freeways throughout North America.





'''Aerial view of Highway 401 looking east from the Don Valley Parkway
in Toronto

400-Series History

400-Series Highways receive numbers one of two ways. The first and original method was sequential numbering starting at 400 and working up to 409. The first three 400-series Highways were 400, 401 and 402 - originally known as the Barrie-Toronto Highway, Highway 2A and the Bluewater Bridge Approach. All three highways received their numbers in 1952. Since then additional highways have been constructed using sequential numbering from 403 to 409. Although there were plans for a Highway 408 it was not constructed. It is widely believed that the new Mid-Peninsula Highway bypass of the Queen Elizabeth Way will receive the designation 408.

The more common method of 400-series numbering after 1970 is assigning a 400 designation to an already-existing highway. For example, Toronto’s Highway 427 was the original routing of Highway 27 prior to being upgraded to a freeway. Highway 416 and 417 were the original routings of Highway 16 and 17 in the Ottawa area. Sometimes the highway isn’t necessarily an upgrade of the existing route. Highway 410 and 420 were both freeway bypasses of Highway 10 and Highway 20.

Although the Queen Elizabeth Way has no posted route number it is still part of the 400-Series highway network. The QEW has the secret designation of Highway 451.

List of 400-Series Highways

Today there are 15 different 400-Series Highways (including the QEW) creating a transportation backbone across the southern portion of the province. Plans are currently underway to extend the existing network into Northern Ontario as well as add new routes into the system.

Highway 400

As of October 2003, Highway 400 runs from Toronto to Parry Sound. There is currently an 8 kilometre gap at the Musquash River bridge where the highway is only two lanes, rather than four; however, as the four-lane construction is expected to be completed within a couple of years, the Highway 400 designation has already been extended through this segment. There is also an approximately 20 km stretch, from Horseshoe Lake to the terminus at Parry Sound, where the highway bears the dual designation 400/69. At the Parry Sound terminus of Highway 400, the four lanes simply merge into two and continue northward as Highway 69. Continued construction along the Highway 69 corridor will eventually extend Highway 400 to Sudbury in Northern Ontario. Although this may be subject to change, the Ontario Ministry of Transportation currently plans to have this construction completed by 2013.

Highway 400 is Toronto's main freeway link into Muskoka, York Region and Barrie.

Highway 401

Highway 401 runs from Windsor to the Quebec border. Highway 401 is the backbone of the 400-Series network running across the entire length of Southern and Eastern Ontario.

Highway 402

Highway 402 starts at the Blue Water Bridge in Point Edward (a small village located inside Sarnia) and runs 102km to end at Highway 401 in London. The 402 connects Interstates 69 and 94 in Michigan with the 401 in Ontario.

Highway 403

Highway 403 forms a loop that runs from the Highway 401 in Woodstock back to the junction of Highway 401 and Highway 410 in Mississauga. It passes through Brantford, Hamilton and the Southwestern Suburbs of Toronto. Land that was originally planned to be used for the 403 through Burlington and Oakville was sold to the owners of Highway 407 in the mid-1990s, making a 23km gap between the two sections permanent. In 2002 the Ministry of Transportion co-signed the section of QEW together with the 403.

Highway 404

Highway 404 runs from north from the junction of Highway 401 and the Don Valley Parkway in Toronto to currently end in Newmarket, with eventual plans to extend it to the northern side of Lake Simcoe. Highway 404 is the second north-south freeway in York Region and connects the Northeastern Suburbs with Toronto.

Highway 405

Highway 405 serves as a connector from the Queen Elizabeth Way to the Queenston-Lewiston Bridge in Niagara-on-the-Lake. Though a short spur route, it is still considered a major highway connecting the main trunk highway to Toronto (the QEW) with Interstate 190 outside of Niagara Falls, New York.

Highway 406

Highway 406 serves as a north-south route from the Queen Elizabeth Way through downtown St. Catharines and into central Niagara. It is the last remaining 400-Series highway under Ministry of Transportation jurisdiction with two-lane non-freeway sections. These sections, located between Fonthill and Welland, are planned to be upgraded to full four-lane freeway starting in the Summer of 2004. Plans to extend the route further south to Highway 3 in Port Colborne have been on the books for years, though with the immanent construction of the Mid-Peninsula Highway any future extensions of Highway 406 are in doubt.

Highway 407

Highway 407 forms of Northern Bypass of Highway 401 and the Queen Elizabeth Way through the Greater Toronto Area. It is Ontario’s only toll highway and owned by a private corporation. Highway 407 was also the first highway to use electronic toll collection exclusively for its entire length.

Highway 409

Highway 409 is a short connector route from the 401 to Pearson International Airport. A short section of Highway 409 between Airport Road and Highway 427 in Mississauga was sold to the Greater Toronto Airport Authority in 1999 and is now under their jurisdiction.

Highway 410

Highway 410 runs from the junction of Highway 401 and Highway 403 in Mississauga through Northern Mississauga and Brampton, with eventual plans to extend it as far north as Orangeville or Owen Sound. Construction of a short extension from Highway 7 to Highway 10 is currently underway.

Highway 416

Highway 416 runs from Highway 401 near Johnstown to Highway 417 in Ottawa along the former routing of Highway 16. On the 54th anniversary of D-Day, June 6th, 2003, Highway 416 was officially dedicated as the Veterans Memorial Highway. It is the newest 400-Series highway to be built and owned by the Ministry of Transportation and is the main link between Toronto (via Highway 401) and the National Capital Region.

Highway 417

Highway 417 is the main freeway through the National Capital Region and Eastern Ontario along the Quebec border. Construction of a 27 km extension to Arnprior is currently underway and expected to be completed soon. Eventually the Ministry of Transportation hopes to extend the 417 as far west as North Bay and possibly even as far as Sault Ste. Marie -- however, there is no definite timeline set for this construction. Unlike all other east-west highways in Ontario, the 417 begins its mileage logs at the eastern terminus rather than the west.

Highway 420

This short freeway connects the Queen Elizabeth Way to the Rainbow Bridge in Niagara Falls. The highway was originally a part of the Queen Elizabeth Way itself, but it was renumbered as Highway 420 in 1972, after extensive reconstruction of the route. For nearly 800 meters east of Stanley Ave, Highway 420 is just a regular four-lane city street known as Roberts Street. Though this section of highway was once considered part of the 420, it was transfered to the City of Niagara Falls in 2000. Whether or not Roberts Street is still actually Highway 420 is questionable. The Ministry of Transportation hopes to extend the 420 west past Montrose Road to meet up with Highway 58 and the Thorold Tunnel.

Highway 427

Highway 427 came into existance by designating the already-freeway portions of Highway 27 and the Airport Expressway as a 400-series highway. It serves the heavy-travelled area between the Queen Elizabeth Way and Gardiner Expressway in the south and Highway 407 in the north. Highway 427 has heavy traffic volumes and is no less then 12 lanes between the Queen Elizabeth Way/Gardiner Expressway and Highway 401. The Ministry of Transportation plans on extending Highway 427 to at least Highway 89 and possibly as far as the Barrie area.

Queen Elizabeth Way (Highway 451)

The Queen Elizabeth Way is one of North America's oldest long-distance superhighways. Due to several directional changes along the route the highway uses city names rather than cardinal directions to direct motorists.

Former 400-Series Highways

Due to government restructuring in 1997 and 1998 various sections of provincial highway were transferred over to local jurisdictions. While most of the highways transferred were local in nature, several large routes including freeways were transferred to local governments.

Highway 400A

Originally Highway 400 until the opening of the Coldwater Extension in 1960, Highway 400A, though never signed, was a short spur connecting Highway 400 to the Highway 11 expressway northeast of Barrie. When Highway 11 south of Highway 400 was transferred to local control in 1997 the designation Highway 11 was officially applied to Highway 400A, eliminating it in its entirety. Highway 400A was formerly the shortest 400-Series Highway, had no junctions located between its termini, and was the only 400-Series Highway to be a suffixed route number.

Queen Elizabeth Way east of Highway 427

This short section of Queen Elizabeth Way was transffered to the City of Toronto in 1997 as a cost savings measure by the Provincial Government. It has since been re-designated as a western extension of the Gardiner Expressway

Future Additions to the System

There are several plans on the books to add new routes to the 400-series highway system to serve the growing population of motorists throughout Ontario. Many of these new routes are expected to be toll roads owned and operated in a similar fashion to Highway 407.

Mid-Peninsula Highway

The Mid-Peninsula Highway will serve as southern bypass of the Queen Elizabeth Way through the environmental sensitive Niagara Peninsula. Current estimates peg the QEW requiring five lanes of traffic per direction by 2012. Widening the highway to ten lanes through Ontario's Wine Country and Tender Fruitlands was not considered an acceptable option. Instead, the Mid-Peninsula Highway was devised as a bypass of the QEW for traffic heading directly to Toronto and beyond across the Southern and Central portions of the Niagara Peninsula. The Mid-Peninsula Highway will more then likely be a privately-owned toll (similar to Highway 407 road with construction expected to begin in 2004-2005.

Bradford Bypass

The Bradford Bypass will serve as a connector between Highways 400 and 404 on the extreme northern edge of the Greater Toronto Area. Construction is expected to begin by the end of this decade.

401/407 East Leg Connector 1

401/407 East Leg Connector 1 will serve as a connector between Highway 401 and Highway 407 in the fast-growing western end of Durham Region.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "400-Series Highway."

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Abbeville (disambiguation)

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Abbeville is the name of several places in the world:

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Abbeville (disambiguation)."

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Alga

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

The algae (sing. alga) comprise several different groups of living things, most of which are plants, or have similarities to plants. However, some of them are not actually true members of the kingdom Plantae. All algae lack true leaves, roots, flowers, and other structures specific to higher plants. Traditionally they are distinguished from bacteria and protozoa mainly in that they are autotrophic, obtaining their energy through photosynthesis. They are no longer considered a natural group, but the term is still used for convenience. The botanical study of algae is called phycology.

Traditionally the cyanobacteria have been included here, referred to as the blue-green algae, though recent literature often specifically excludes them. Cyanobacteria are one of the first groups to appear in the fossil record, dating back to about 3800 million years ago, and probably played a large role in creating the Earth's oxygen atmosphere. They have a prokaryotic cell structure, and conduct photosynthesis directly in the cytoplasm.

All other algae are eukaryotes, and conduct photosynthesis within membrane-bound chloroplasts. These chloroplasts contain DNA and are very similar in structure to the cyanobacteria, and presumably represent reduced cyanobacterial endosymbionts. The exact nature of the chloroplasts is different among the different lines of algae, reflecting different endosymbiotic events. There are three groups which have primary chloroplasts:

In these the chloroplast is surrounded by two membranes, of which the outer comes from the host and the inner from the chloroplast. The chloroplasts of red algae have a more or less typical cyanobacterial pigmentation, while the plants have chloroplasts with chlorophyll b, which is found in some cyanobacteria but not most. It is still not entirely clear whether these groups acquired chloroplasts independently, or diverged from a single ancestral form.

Two other groups have green chloroplasts containing chlorophyll b, the euglenids and chlorarachniophytes. These are surrounded by three and four membranes, respectively, and were probably retained from an ingested green alga. Those of the chlorarchniophytes contain a small nucleomorph, which is the remnant of the alga's nucleus. It has been suggested that the euglenid chloroplasts only have three membranes because they were acquired through myzocytosis rather than phagocytosis.

The remaining algae all have chloroplasts containing chlorophylls a and c. The latter of these is not known from any prokaryotes or primary chloroplasts, but genetic similarities suggest they are derived from red algae. These groups include:

In the first three of these groups the chloroplast has four membranes, retaining a nucleomorph in cryptomonads. It has been suggested that these groups, sometimes referred to as the Chromista, also share a common origin but this is far from certain. The typical dinoflagellate chloroplast has three membranes, but there is considerable diversity in chloroplasts among the group, some members presumably having acquired theirs from other sources. The Apicomplexa, a group of closely related parasites, also have plastids though not actual chloroplasts, which may have a common origin with those of the dinoflagellates.

Most of the simpler algae are unicellular flagellates or amoeboids, but colonial and non-motile forms have developed independently among several of the groups. Some of the more common organizational levels, more than one of which may occur in the life cycle of a species, are:

In three lines even higher levels of organization have been reached, leading to organisms with full tissue differentiation. These are the brown algae, some of which may reached 70 m in length, the red algae, and the green algae. The last have developed even more complex forms, giving rise to the land plants. The exact point where these begin, and the algae stop, is usually taken to be the presence of reproductive organs with productive cell layers, which are not found in the other lines.

Algae are an extremely important part of water ecology. Larger algae, called seaweeds, grow in large underwater "forests" that provide distinctive habitats. Microscopic forms, called phytoplankton, provide most of the energy for marine ecosystems. Sometimes these are present in exceptionally large quantities, called algal blooms, which are typically visible as a weaker or stronger discoloration of the water. A few algae are eaten, or used to make various products. A great deal more could be said here...

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Alga."

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Autoroute

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Autoroute is a French word meaning, literally, a motor road, and corresponding to the words "motorway", "freeway" or "superhighway" in English. It is the name used in the francophone world for highways constructed exclusively for motor traffic.

France

The Autoroute system in France consists largely of toll roads. It is a network of 7,000 km worth of highways. Tolls are either based on a flat-rate or on the distance driven. France has the highest set speed for limited access highways (130 km/h) in Western Europe or North America.

Unlike the Quebecois Autoroute or the Interstate Highway System, there is no real numbering system, but there is a clustering of Autoroute numbers based on region. A-1, A-3, A-4, A-5, A-6, A-10, A-13, A-14, A-15, A-16 radiate from Paris with A-2 and A-11 branching from A-1 and A-10, respectively. The 20s are found in Northern France. The 30s are found in Eastern France. The 40s are found near the Alps. The 50s are near the French Riviera. The 60s are found in Southern France. The 70s are found in the centre of the country. The 80s are found west of Paris.

Quebec

The Autoroute system in the province of Quebec, Canada, is a network of freeways which operate under the same principle of controlled-access as the Interstate freeway system in the United States or the 400-Series Highways in neighbouring Ontario. The Autoroutes are the backbone of Quebec's highway system, which spans more than 20,000 km of roads. The speed limit on Quebec's Autoroutes is 100 km/h in rural areas and 70 km/h in urban areas.

Autoroutes are identified by blue and red shields, with the red header image representing a highway overpass. Quebec's Autoroutes are numbered from 1-99 in the case of principal routes, and from 400-999 in the case of collector routes or deviation routes designed such that truck traffic can by-pass urban areas. In the case of deviation routes, the hundreds prefix is even-numbered (e.g., 400, 600), whereas collector routes have odd-numbered prefixes (e.g., 500, 700, 900). For example, A-40 is an Autoroute, the A-640 is a deviation route, and the A-740 is a collector route linking the A-40 to other Autoroutes.

Odd-numbered Autoroutes (e.g., A-15) run north-south, while the even-numbered ones (e.g., A-20, A-40) run east-west. In addition, each Autoroute has a unique name in addition to its numerical designation and it is commonplace for Autoroutes to be identified using either method (e.g., the Décarie, the 15).


Examples of Autoroute marker shields.


A-15 Northbound, near Brossard

History of Quebec's Autoroutes

Quebec's first Autoroute was the Laurentian Autoroute (Autoroute des Laurentides), which opened in 1959 as a toll road. This initative to bring freeways into Quebec was started by Maurice Duplessis, whose government saw the construction of the Laurentian Autoroute (A-15) from Montréal to Saint-Jérôme and the first section of the Boulevard Métropolitain (A-40), which opened in 1960.

It was the Quebec Liberal government of the 1960s that saw the construction of further Autoroutes, especially in light of the fact that many visitors would be flocking to Montréal by car for Expo 67. The Décarie (A-15) and the Lafontaine Tunnel were constructed for that very reason. The Eastern Townships Autoroute (Autoroute des Cantons-de-l'Est) opened in 1964, while the A-55 between Magog and Rock Island opened in 1967. A-40 was extended out to Berthierville, and later to Trois-Rivières in the 1970s.

The 1970s also saw the completion of the Pierre-Laporte Bridge in Québec City, connecting the south shore of the Saint Lawrence River to the north. In addition to this, the A-73 was extended to Beauce, the A-20 was extended to Rivière-du-Loup, and the Chomedey Autoroute (A-13) and the A-440 were constructed in Laval. During the 1970s, the Parti Québécois came to power, whose platform mandated an expansion of public transportation over the construction of more Autoroutes. Existing Autoroutes were extended (e.g., the A-40 was extended from Trois-Rivières to Quebec City) but no new Autoroutes were built.

Nearly all of Quebec's Autoroutes were toll roads until the mid-1980s, when the toll barriers were removed and the province stopped collecting tolls from vehicles using the Autoroutes.

List of Autoroutes

Autoroute 5

Autoroute 10

Autoroute 13

Autoroute 15

Autoroute 19

Autoroute 20

Autoroute 25

Autoroute 30

Autoroute 31

Autoroute 35

Autoroute 40

Autoroute 50

Autoroute 55

Autoroute 70

Autoroute 73

Autoroute 410

Autoroute 440

Autoroute 520

Autoroute 540

Autoroute 573

Autoroute 640

Autoroute 720

Autoroute 740

Autoroute 955

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Autoroute."

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Binaural recording

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Binaural is a method of recording audio which uses a special microphone arrangement. The term has often been confused as a synonym for the word "stereo", and this is partially due to a large amount of misuse in the mid 1950s by the recording industry, as a marketing buzzword. In truth, binaural recordings are actually the best way to reproduce stereo with headphones. Typical stereo recordings are mixed for loud speaker arrangements, and do not factor in natural crossfeed or sonic shaping of the head and ear, since these things happen naturally as you listen.

Recording technique

With the simplest recording method, the only requirement is to place two microphones facing away from each other, and roughly seven inches apart. The distance and placement roughly approximates the position of an average human's ear canals.

More elaborate techniques exist in pre-packaged forms. A typical binaural recording unit has two high fidelity microphones mounted in a dummy head, inset in ear shaped molds to fully capture all of the audio frequency adjustments (known as Head Related Transfer Functions in the psychoacoustic research community) that happen naturally as sound wraps around the human head and is "shaped" by the form of the outer and inner ear. The Neumann KU-81, and KU-100 are the most commonly used binaural packages. The KEMAR system is another alternative. The more expensive and accurate Aachen Head Acoustics unit does automatic equalization and processing to create a more enveloping experience. A simplified version of this, called a Jecklin Disk, uses a 30cm acoustically absorptive disk between the mics.

In the past, a number of microphone sets were available that offered a customized "in-ear" microphone system, which could be linked to a portable DAT or MiniDisc recorder, bringing the ability to not only create binaural recordings to the masses, but to create mobile recordings as well. Unfortunately, these have been discontinued and are only available in the used electronics market.

Playback

Once recorded, the binaural effect can only be reproduced using a head set. It does not work with mono playback; nor does it work while using loudspeaker units, as the acoustics of this arrangement distort the channel separation via natural crossfeed (unless the arrangement is carefully designed, and using expensive crossfeed cancellation equipment.)

The result is a listening experience that spatially transcends normally recorded stereo, since it accurately reproduces the effect of hearing a sound in person, given the 360° nature of how our ears pick up nuance in the sound waves. Binaural records can very convincingly reproduce location of sound behind, ahead, above, or wherever else the sound actually came from during recording.

Any set of headphones that provide good right and left channel isolation are sufficient to hear the immersive effects of the recording, and anyone who has even a cheap set of headphones can enjoy the recordings. As with any playback, higher quality headphones will do a better job of creating a the illusion. Several high-end head set manufacturers have created some units specifically for the playback of binaural. Etymotic Research's ER-4B canal phone actually sits inside the ear, much like a hearing aid. The B model is tuned and equalized to enhance binaural playback. In addition, a number of headphone amplifier companies have created hardware that takes advantage of these special recordings.

History

The history of binaural recording goes back to 1881. The first binaural unit was an array of carbon telephone microphones installed along the front edge of the Paris Opera. The signal was sent to subscribers through the telephone system, and required that they wear a special head set, which had a tiny speaker for each ear.

The novelty wore off, and there wasn't significant interest in the technology until around forty years later when a Connecticut radio station began to broadcast binaural shows. Stereo radio had not yet been implemented, so the station actually broadcasted the left channel on one frequency and the right channel on a second. Listeners would then have to own two radios, and plug the right and left ear pieces of their head sets into each radio. Naturally, the expense of owning two radios was, at the time, too much for a broad audience, and again binaural faded into obscurity.

Binaural managed to remain in the background for many reasons. One was the expensive, specialized equipment required to do quality recordings. Another was the fact that it requires headphones to listen to correctly, something that most of the world considers a convenience, and would feel restrained if they couldn't listen to it on their home stereo systems, or in automobiles. Lastly, the types of things that can be recorded do not have a typically high market value. Recordings that are done in studios would have little to benefit from using a binaural set up, beyond natural crossfeed, as the spacial quality of the studio would not be very dynamic and interesting. Recordings that are of interest are live orchestral performances, and ambient "environmental" recordings of city sounds, nature, and other such subject matters.

The modern era has seen a resurgence of interest in binaural, specifically within the audiophile community, partially due to the widespread availability of headphones, and cheaper methods of recording. A small grass roots movement of people building their own recording sets and swapping them on the Internet has joined the relatively small collection of CDs that one can find available for purchase.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Binaural recording."

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British coin Florin

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

The nineteenth and twentieth century Florin or Two Shillings coin should not be confused with the medieval gold Florin, which was worth six shillings.

In 1847 a motion was introduced in Parliament calling for the introduction of a decimal currency and the striking of coins of one-tenth and one-hundredth of a Pound. The motion was subsequently withdrawn on the understanding that a one-tenth Pound coin would be produced to test the waters of public opinion. There was considerable discussion of what the coin should be called, with Centum, Decade, and Dime being among the suggestions, before florin was eventually settled upon, partly because of its connection with old English coinage, and partly because other European countries also had coins of approximately the same size and weight called florins.

The first florins were struck in 1849 as silver coins weighing 11.3 grams and having a diameter of 28 millimetres. These first coins would have come as rather a shock to the public, as for the first time in nearly 200 years a British coin featured a portrait of the monarch wearing a crown. Even more of a shock, including, allegedly, to Queen Victoria herself, was the omission of D G -- Dei Gratia, by the grace of God -- from the coin's inscription, which resulted in it being popularly known as the Godless Florin. The inscription around the obverse read VICTORIA REGINA 1849. The reverse featured four crowned cruciform shields with a rose in the centre, with the shields separated by a rose, thistle, rose, and a shamrock; the inscription on the reverse was ONE FLORIN ONE TENTH OF A POUND. The Godless Florin may have also been minted in 1850 and 1851 with the 1849 date.

In 1851, the florin was redesigned in a most unusual way. The diameter was increased to 30 millimetres, and all the lettering on the coin was in Gothic script, resulting in it being known as the Gothic Florin. The date was rendered in Roman numerals. The inscription on the obverse read (e.g.) victoria d g britt reg f d mdcccli, while the reverse read one florin one tenth of a pound. The Gothic Florin was produced each year until 1887 (mdccclxxxvii).

In 1887, to commemorate Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee, a new older "Jubilee Head" of the queen was used and the various flora were removed from the reverse and replaced by sceptres between the shields and a Garter Star in the centre. The diameter was reduced to 29.5 millimetres. All the inscriptions were in Latin letters and Arabic numbers. The inscription on the obverse read (e.g.) VICTORIA DEI GRATIA, while the reverse read FID DEF BRITT REG date, with no indication of the value. The Jubilee Head issue was released each year between 1887 and 1892.

In 1893, a new "Old Head" showing the veiled head of the queen was introduced, inscribed VICTORIA DEI GRA BRITT REGINA FID DEF IND IMP, together with a completely new reverse showing three shields separated by a rose, shamrock, and thistle surmounted by the Garter crown and inscribed ONE FLORIN TWO SHILLINGS. The diameter was reduced again, to 28.5 millimetres. This issue was released each year between 1893 and 1901.

The florin of King Edward VII was minted each year of his reign, 1902-1910. It remained at 11.3 grams weight and 29.5 millimetres diameter. The obverse shows the right-facing head of the king, inscribed EDWARDVS VII DEI GRA BRITT OMN REX FD IND IMP, while the reverse features an unique design showing Britannia standing on a shield with a spear, and inscribed ONE FLORIN TWO SHILLINGS date.

Florins bearing his left-facing effigy were minted in each year of the reign of King George V (1910-1936) except 1910 and 1934. Whilst the weight and diameter of the coin were unchanged, the metal composition was changed in 1920 from 0.925 silver to 50% silver, 40% copper, 10% nickel, then again in 1922 to 50% silver, 50% copper, and again in 1927 to 50% silver, 40% copper, 5% nickel, 5% zinc. The design of the reverse was similar to Queen Victoria's Jubilee florin. Until 1926 the inscriptions on the obverse were GEORGIVS V D G BRITT OMN REX F D IND IMP and on the reverse were ONE FLORIN date, while from 1927 the obverse inscriptions were GEORGIVS V DEI GRA BRITT OMN REX and the reverse ones were FID DEF IND IMP date ONE FLORIN.

After the end of George V's reign, the word "florin" no longer appears on British coins. A pattern florin exists for King Edward VIII, which would have been due to receive approval around the time that the king abdicated in 1936 -- the obverse shows the left-facing effigy of the king inscribed EDWARDVS VIII D G BR OMN REX, while the reverse shows a crowned rose flanked by a thistle and shamrock, with E below the thistle and R below the shamrock, and the inscription FID DEF IND IMP TWO SHILLINGS 1937.

King George VI's florins, produced each year between 1937 and 1951, look very like the one planned for his brother Edward VIII. The obverse shows the left-facing effigy of the king inscribed GEORGIVS VI D G BR OMN REX, while the reverse shows a crowned rose flanked by a thistle and shamrock, with G below the thistle and R below the shamrock, and the inscription FID DEF IND IMP TWO SHILLINGS date until 1948, and without the IND IMP from 1949. The metal content was changed, as for all silver coins, from 1947 to 75% copper, 25% nickel. This removal of all the silver meant that most of the earlier coins which contained silver were removed from circulation fairly quickly (see Gresham's law), although the writer of this article does recall receiving a coin inscribed "FLORIN" in the 1960s.

Florins were produced for Queen Elizabeth II each year between 1953 and 1967, with proof coins again produced in 1970. The obverse shows the Mary Gillick head of Queen Elizabeth, inscribed ELIZABETH II DEI GRATIA BRITT OMN REGINA (1953 only) or ELIZABETH II DEI GRATIA REGINA (all other years), while the reverse shows concentric roses in the centre surrounded by thistles, shamrocks, and leeks, with the inscription FID DEF TWO SHILLINGS date. In accordance with the plan for decimalisation of the currency (120 years after this denomination was first introduced in the first plan to introduce a decimal currency), from 1968 the decimal Ten Pence coin was introduced of the same size, weight, and metal composition as the florin. Accordingly the florin (usually dated 1947 or later) remained in circulation until the size of the decimal ten pence was itself reduced in 1992, and the coins were finally demonetised in 1993. For other denominations, please see British coinage.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "British coin Florin."

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British coin Half Penny

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

This article discusses the British decimal half penny coin, issued between 1971 and 1984, only. For the pre-decimal halfpenny, issued between 1272 and 1969, please see here.

The British decimal Half Penny (1/2p) coin was issued on 15 February 1971, the day the British currency was decimalised. In practice it had been available from banks in bags for some weeks previously.

The coin was minted in bronze. The coin weighed 1.78 grams and had a diameter of 17.14 millimetres. It was the smallest coin used in the decimal currency coinage by both size and value, and was nicknamed the "tiddler" on account of its size. By the early 1980s its value was minimal and its main utility was as a useful screwdriver of small screws. The 1984 half penny was only issued in proof sets by the Royal Mint, and the coin was demonetised and withdrawn from circulation in December 1984.

The reverse of the coin, designed by Christopher Ironside, was simply a crown, with the numeral "1/2" below the crown, and either NEW PENNY (1971-1981) or HALF PENNY (1982-1984) above the crown.

During the existence of the coin, only one obverse was used -- the head of Queen Elizabeth II by Arnold Machin, with the inscription ELIZABETH II D.G.REG.F.D. date.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "British coin Half Penny."

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British coin Two Pounds

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

This article discusses the British Two Pounds coins, both the commemorative issues issued between 1986 and 1996, and the regular bimetallic circulation coin first issued in 1998, dated 1997, only. For earlier Two Pounds coins issued in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, please see here.

The commemorative Two Pounds (£2) coin was minted from the same composition as the £1 coin, i.e. a nickel-brass alloy of approximately 70% copper, 24.5% nickel, and 5.5% zinc. The coin weighs 15.98 grams and has a diameter of 28.40 millimetres.

The only obverse used by the commemorative £2 coin is the head of Queen Elizabeth II by Raphael Maklouf, with the inscription ELIZABETH II DEI GRATIA REGINA F D TWO POUNDS.

There were seven issues of this coin, with the following reverses and inscriptions:

1. Thistle on St Andrews' Cross, 1986 above. Edge inscription: XIII COMMONWEALTH GAMES SCOTLAND 1986

2. Intertwined W and M with mace, English crown above, 1689 over 1989 below, TERCENTENARY OF THE BILL OF RIGHTS above. No edge inscription.

3. Intertwined W and M with mace, Scottish crown above, 1689 over 1989 below, TERCENTENARY OF THE CLAIM OF RIGHT above. No edge inscription.

4. Seal of the Bank of England, Intertwined W and M surmounted by crown above legend BANK OF ENGLAND 1694 1994. Edge inscription: SIC VOS NON VOBIS above. Commemorates the tercentenary of the Bank of England.

5. Dove carrying olive branch. Edge inscription: 1945 IN PEACE GOODWILL 1995. Commemorates the 50th anniversary of the end of the Second World War. An unusual coin in only having the date on its edge.

6. Array of flags, 50 and UN symbol Legend: NATIONS UNITED FOR PEACE 1945 - 1995. No edge inscription. Commemorates the 50th anniversary of the United Nations.

7. Representation of a Football, 1996 in centre, 16 small rings. Edge inscription: TENTH EUROPEAN CHAMPIONSHIP. Commemorates the "Euro 96" European Football Championships.

These coins tended not to circulate at the time of their issue, but they do seem to appear in circulation more often now that there is also a circulating coin of this denomination. In 1997 a new design was produced, intended to circulate on a daily basis. It is the first bi-metallic coin to be produced for circulation in Britain since the tin farthings with a copper plug, produced in 1692. The coins consist of an outer gold-coloured nickel-brass ring, comprised of 76% copper, 20% zinc, and 4% nickel, and an inner silver-coloured cupro-nickel inner disc comprised of 75% copper, 25% nickel. The coins weigh 12.00 grams and are 28.40 millimetres in diameter.

Because of technical difficulties, the 1997-dated coins which bear the effigy of Queen Elizabeth II by Raphael Maklouf were not released to circulation until June 1998 (the same time as the 1998-dated coins). 1998 and later dated coins bear the effigy of the Queen by Ian Rank-Broadley. The comparative rarity of the Maklouf coins ("the ones with the necklace") has led to an urban legend that they are much more valuable than the other coins, but this is absolutely not true -- there are over 13 million 1997-dated £2's in circulation. The Maklouf-effigy coins bear the inscription ELIZABETH II DEI GRATIA REGINA F D on the obverse; the Rank-Broadley coins bear the inscription ELIZABETH II DEI GRA REG FID DEF.

The normal reverse of the coin, designed by Bruce Rushin, bears a concentric design symbolically representing technological development from the Iron Age, through the Industrial Revolution and the Electronic Age to the Internet, with the inscription TWO POUNDS above the design and the date below. The coin has the edge inscription STANDING ON THE SHOULDERS OF GIANTS.

This denomination is now commonly used for commemorative purposes, and the following varieties have been issued:

1. Reverse contains a symbolic representation of a stadium with a rugby ball and goalposts; 1999 above the design, TWO POUNDS below. Edge inscription RUGBY WORLD CUP 1999. 4.9 million coins in circulation.

2. Reverse contains a symbolic representation Marconi's transatlantic wireless transmission of 1901; TWO POUNDS below. Edge inscription WIRELESS BRIDGES THE ATLANTIC...MARCONI...1901.

3 to 6. Reverse contains XVII COMMONWEALTH GAMES 2002 around an athlete holding a banner, £2 in front and the national flag (separate coin issues showing the national flags of England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland). Edge inscription SPIRIT OF FRIENDSHIP MANCHESTER 2002.

7. Reverse contains a representation of the DNA double helix, DNA DOUBLE HELIX above, 1953 TWO POUNDS 2003 below. Edge inscription DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID.

See also British coinage

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British coin Two Pounds (pre-decimal)

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

For Two Pound coins after 1983, see here.

A gold Two Pounds coin was an occasional feature of the British currency from 1823 until the early 1990s. With the exception of proof coins issued in 1825, 1826, and 1831, the design of the reverse always featured the George and Dragon of Benedetto Pistrucci, with the year in the exergue under the design.

The coin was normally issued in cased "proof" condition, although the issues of 1823, 1887, 1893, and 1902 did circulate. The normal weight of the denomination was 16 grams, with a usual diameter of 28 millimetres.

The first appearance of the denomination was in the reign of George IV, when it was produced in 1826 and 1829. The obverse shows the left-facing bust of the king with the legend GEORGIUS IIII D G BRITANNIAR REX F D, with the Pistrucci reverse and DECUS ET TUTAMEN ANNO REGNI IV on the edge.

The 1826 coin features a smaller head of the king, with the legend GEORGIUS IV DEI GRATIA 1826 while the reverse shows a crowned shield within a mantle cape with the legend BRITANNIARUM REX FID DEF. The 1826 coin has the edge inscription DECUS ET TUTAMEN ANNO REGNI SEPTIMO. In 1831 a proof coin of this denomination was produced for the start of the reign of king William IV. The obverse shows a right facing head of the king with the legend GULIELMUS IIII D G BRITANNIAR REX F D, while the reverse shows a crowned shield with the legend ANNO 1831. There is no edge inscription. The next appearance of the denomination was not until 1887 when the golden jubilee of Queen Victoria was being celebrated, when the Jubilee head was used with the obverse inscription VICTORIA D G BRIT REG F D, while the reverse shows Pistrucci's design of St George slaying the dragon with the only legend being the date in the exergue. The edge of this coin is milled, and it weighs 16 grams. This coin was also (rarely) produced in the mint at Sydney, Australia, which is identified by the letter "S" above the centre of the date.

The Pistrucci reverse was used again in 1893, when the obverse used the "Old Head" of the queen, with the legend VICTORIA DEI GRA BRITT REGINA FID DEF IND IMP, and the edge is again milled. In the reigns of Kings Edward VII, George V, (Edward VIII), and George VI, two pound coins were only issued in proof sets in the first year of their reign (only prepared for approval in the case of Edward VIII, which is why his coin is valued at around £175,000!), except for Edward VII in 1902 when the did circulate. All these reigns used the Pistrucci George and Dragon obverse with milled edges. The 1902 Edward VII coin was also minted at Sydney, being identified by an "S" above the centre of the date. The reign of Queen Elizabeth II saw a departure from the normal practice in issuing gold coinage. A small number of gold £2 pieces were struck in 1953 in order to provide continuity of the series, but the striking was not released to the public, with the result that they are now valued at around £75,000. No further £2 gold pieces were struck until 1980, 9 years after decimalisation, since when they were issued somewhat haphazardly in most years. Coins from 1980 to 1984 use the Arnold Machin effigy of the Queen, while the 1985-1996 coins use the Raphael Maklouf effigy and most later coins use the Ian Rank-Broadley effigy. Until 1993, all these years use the Pistrucci reverse except for 1986 which used a gold version of the circulating Two Pound coin, and 1989 when a completely new design was used to commemorate the 500th anniversary of the first issue of the sovereign coin - the obverse shows the Queen seated on the coronation throne holding the orb and sceptre, with the legend ELIZABETH II DEI GRA REG FID DEF, while the reverse shows a crowned shield within a double rose and the legend ANNIVERSARY OF THE GOLD SOVEREIGN 1489-1989.

Since 1997 circulating £2 coins have been produced in cupronickel, and equivalent strikings in gold have been produced.

For other denominations, please see British coinage.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "British coin Two Pounds (pre-decimal)."

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British military aircraft designation systems

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

British military aircraft designation systems

Generally, aircraft in British military service were known by names assigned by their manufacturer, or (for various imported types) bestowed upon them by the first military service to bring them into service. There was a period (in the 1920s) when names followed function, beginning with 'F' for fighters, 'N' for naval, 'B' for bomber, and so on. Often the Navy would simply preface the RAF name with the word "Sea" (for example Sea Hurricane or Sea Heron).

From about 1910, it was decided that all aircraft for British Army use would be designed at the Royal Aircraft Factory, Farnborough, although they might be built elsewhere. These did have reasonably consistent designations. The Admiralty chose to have private industry design and build its aircraft. The Army eventually relented, and also bought industry-designed aircraft.

From 1920 to 1949, every type had an associated Air Ministry Specification number. Some of these never produced a prototype, let alone an aircraft in service. Others were drawn up around a private venture design, or an imported model.

Variants of each operational type are normally indicated by letters to indicate the current function of that aircraft and then a number indicating the sequence in which that variant achieved operational status. No number is reused with a different functional prefix. For example the first Lockheed Hercules in RAF service was known as the C.1. A later version with a lengthened fuselage received the designation C.3 because a single example adapted for weather monitoring purposes had already taken the designation W.2. Aircraft with a long service life may find that their function changes from time to time and a change in the designation letters and sometimes the following digit will reflect such new roles.

These functional prefixes are:

It is unlikely that all of these were ever in use at the same period in the RAF's long history. Some are unlikely to be used again in the future.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "British military aircraft designation systems."

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Cairo (disambiguation)

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

The most famous Cairo is the capital of Egypt. Cairo is also the name of:

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Cairo (disambiguation)."

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Campbell (disambiguation)

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Campbell is the name of one of the clans of Scotland.

Campbell is also the name of several places in the United States of America:

There are also several counties in the USA named Campbell County.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Campbell (disambiguation)."

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Canby's Cross

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)


Canby's Cross

Canby's Cross is located in Lava Beds National Monument. It was erected to commemorate General Canby's death at a peace gathering. General Canby was shot in the face by Captain Jack of the Modoc tribe whom was later hanged for the killing.

The cross reads: Gen Canby USA was murdered here by the Modocs April 11, 1873

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Canby's Cross."

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Derivative (examples)

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Example 1

Consider f(x) = 5:

The derivative of a constant is zero.

Example 2

Consider the graph of . Should the reader have an understanding of algebra and the Cartesian coordinate system, the reader should be able to independently determine that this line has a slope of 2 at every point. Using the above quotient (along with an understanding of the limit, secant, and tangent) one can determine the slope at (4,5):

The derivative and slope are equivalent.

Example 3

Via differentiation, one can find the slope of a curve. Consider :

For any point x, the slope of the function is .

Example 4

Consider f(x) = √x:

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Derivative (examples)."

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Digital sum

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

The digital sum of a set of numbers is the sum of each set of digits independently. That is it is the same as the normal sum except that no carrying is used.

For example in decimal arithmetic, the digital sum of 123 + 789 is 802. 

123
789
---
802
More usually the digital sum is calculated in binary where the result only depends upon whether there are an even or odd number of 1s in each column. This is the same function as parity or multiple exclusive ors.

For example: 

011 (3)
100 (4)
101 (5)
---
010 (2) is the digital sum.
Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Digital sum."

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Dionysius

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

In Greek mythology, Dionysius the Elder was a mortal (different from Dionysus, the god). His courtier, Damocles, mentioned one night that, as a person of power and authority, Dionysius must be very content and happy. Dionysius invited Damocles to a banquet, which he enjoyed very much sitting at Dionysius' throne. Damocles looked up and saw a sword hanging by a single piece of horsehair directly above his head and he thereafter realized the precarious position rulers are in. The Sword of Damocles is an oft-used allusion to this myth.

Dionysius once condemned a man named Pythias to death. He allowed Pythias to leave to settle his affairs first, as long as Damon, Pythias' friend, agreed to stay as hostage. Damon did so. When Pythias returned as promised, Dionysius let them both go.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Dionysius."

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Disney

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

The name Disney may refer to several aspects of the entertainment empire of Walt Disney:

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Disney."

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Don River

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

There are at least four rivers named Don:

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Don River."

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Eastern Armenian verb table

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

The following is an Eastern Armenian verb table. The Western Armenian verb table can be found here:

Conjugations

Affirmative/Interrogative

Type I/II

(This conjugation is termed "I/II" to coincide with historic/Western numbering, where there are still three distinct conjugations)

  Indicative
Present 		Imperfect Preterite Future

1sg
2sg
3sg
1pl
2pl
3pl

yes
du
na
menk'
duk'
nrank'

sirum em
sirum es
sirum ê
sirum enk'
sirum ek'
sirum en

sirum êi
sirum êir
sirum êr
sirum êink'
sirum êik'
sirum êin

sirec'i
sirec'ir
sirec'
sirec'ink'
sirec'ik'
sirec'in

sirelu yem
sirelu yes
sirelu ê
sirelu yenk'
sirelu yek'
sirelu yen

 

  Perfect Pluperfect Fut. Perfect

1sg
2sg
3sg
1pl
2pl
3pl

sirel em
sirel es
sirel ê
sirel enk'
sirel ek'
sirel en

sirel êi
sirel êir
sirel êr
sirel êink'
sirel êik'
sirel êin

sirelu êi
sirelu êir
sirelu êr
sirelu êink'
sirelu êik'
sirelu êin

 

  Optative
Non-Past 		Past Conditional
Non-Past 		Past

1sg
2sg
3sg
1pl
2pl
3pl

sirem
sires
siri
sirenk'
sirek'
siren

sirei
sireir
sirer
sireink'
sireik'
sirein

ksirem
ksires
ksiri
ksirenk'
ksirek'
ksiren

ksirei
ksireir
ksirer
ksireink'
ksireik'
ksirein

 

  Jussive
Non-Past 		Past Imperative
 

1sg
2sg
3sg
1pl
2pl
3pl

piti sirem
piti sires
piti siri
piti sirenk'
piti sirek'
piti siren

piti sirei
piti sireir
piti sirer
piti sireink'
piti sireik'
piti sirein

 
sirir! ~ siri!
 
 
sirec'ek'! ~ sirek'!
 

 

Infinitive
Gerund
Present Participle I
Present Participle II
Past Act. Participle
Past Pass. Participle
Future Participle

sirel (to love)
sirogh
sirum
sirelis
sirel
sirac
sirelu

Type III

(This conjugation is termed "III" (instead of "II") to coincide with historic/Western numbering, where there are still three distinct conjugations)

  Indicative
Present 		Imperfect Preterite Future

1sg
2sg
3sg
1pl
2pl
3pl

yes
du
na
menk'
duk'
nrank'

kardum em
kardum es
kardum ê
kardum enk'
kardum ek'
kardum en

kardum êi
kardum êir
kardum êr
kardum êink'
kardum êik'
kardum êin

kardac'i
kardac'ir
kardac'
kardac'ink'
kardac'ik'
kardac'in

kardalu yem
kardalu yes
kardalu ê
kardalu yenk'
kardalu yek'
kardalu yen

 

  Perfect Pluperfect Fut. Perfect

1sg
2sg
3sg
1pl
2pl
3pl

kardac'el em
kardac'el es
kardac'el ê
kardac'el enk'
kardac'el ek'
kardac'el en

kardac'el êi
kardac'el êir
kardac'el êr
kardac'el êink'
kardac'el êik'
kardac'el êin

kardalu êi
kardalu êir
kardalu êr
kardalu êink'
kardalu êik'
kardalu êin

 

  Optative
Non-Past 		Past Conditional
Non-Past 		Past

1sg
2sg
3sg
1pl
2pl
3pl

kardam
kardas
karda
kardank'
kardak'
kardan

kardayi
kardayir
kardar
kardayink'
kardayik'
kardayin

kkardam
kkardas
kkarda
kkardank'
kkardak'
kkardan

kkardayi
kkardayir
kkardar
kkardayink'
kkardayik'
kkardayin

 

  Jussive
Non-Past 		Past Imperative
 

1sg
2sg
3sg
1pl
2pl
3pl

piti kardam
piti kardas
piti karda
piti kardank'
piti kardak'
piti kardan

piti kardayi
piti kardayir
piti kardar
piti kardayink'
piti kardayik'
piti kardayin

 
karda!
 
 
kardac'ek'!
 

 

Infinitive
Gerund
Present Participle I


Present Participle II
Past Act. Participle
Past Pass. Participle
Future Participle

kardal (to read)
kardac'ogh
kardum
kardalis
kardac'el
kardac'ac
kardalu

Negative

Type I

Note: the formation of the negative is the same for all conjugations. The examples below are based on the first conjugation.

  Indicative
Present 		Imperfect Preterite Future

1sg
2sg
3sg
1pl
2pl
3pl

yes
du
na
menk'
duk'
nrank'

ch'em sirum
ch'es sirum
ch'i sirum
ch'enk' sirum
ch'ek' sirum
ch'en sirum

ch'êi sirum
ch'êir sirum
ch'êr sirum
ch'êink' sirum
ch'êik' sirum
ch'êin sirum

ch'sirec'i
ch'sirec'ir


ch'sirec'
ch'sirec'ink'
ch'sirec'ik'
ch'sirec'in

ch'em sirelu
ch'es sirelu
ch'i sirelu
ch'enk' sirelu
ch'ek' sirelu
ch'en sirelu

 

  Perfect Pluperfect Fut. Perfect

1sg
2sg
3sg
1pl
2pl
3pl

ch'em sirel
ch'es sirel
ch'i sirel
ch'enk' sirel
ch'ek' sirel
ch'en sirel

ch'êi sirel
ch'êir sirel
ch'êr sirel
ch'êink' sirel
ch'êik' sirel
ch'êin sirel

ch'êi sirelu
ch'êir sirelu
ch'êr sirelu
ch'êink' sirelu
ch'êik' sirelu
ch'êin sirelu

 

  Optative
Non-Past 		Past Conditional
Non-Past 		Past

1sg
2sg
3sg
1pl
2pl
3pl

ch'sirem
ch'sires
ch'siri
ch'sirenk'
ch'sirek'
ch'siren

ch'sirei
ch'sireir
ch'sirer
ch'sireink'
ch'sireik'
ch'sirein

ch'em siri
ch'es siri
ch'i siri
ch'enk' siri
ch'ek' siri
ch'en siri

ch'êi siri
ch'êir siri
ch'êr siri
ch'êink' siri
ch'êik' siri
ch'êin siri

 

  Jussive
Non-Past 		Past Imperative
 

1sg
2sg
3sg
1pl
2pl
3pl

*piti ch'sirem
piti ch'sires
piti ch'siri
piti ch'sirenk'
piti ch'sirek'
piti ch'siren

*piti ch'sirei
piti ch'sireir
piti ch'sirer
piti ch'sireink'
piti ch'sireik'
piti ch'sirein

 
mi sirir! ~ mi siri!
 
 
mi sirec'ek'! ~ mi sirek'!
 

 

Infinitive
Gerund
Present Participle I
Present Participle II
Past Act. Participle
Past Pass. Participle
Future Participle

ch'sirel (to not love)
ch'sirogh
ch'sirum
ch'sirelis
ch'sirel
ch'sirac
ch'sirelu

Note: the negative jussive forms may also be (in Eastern Armenian) ch'piti sirem, ch'piti sires, etc; ch'piti sirei, ch'piti sireir, etc.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Eastern Armenian verb table."

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Eiffel Tower

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

The Eiffel Tower is the most recognizable landmark in Paris and is known worldwide as a symbol of France. Named after its designer, Gustave Eiffel, it is a premier tourist destination, with over 5.5 million visitors per year. The tower received its 200,000,000th guest on November 28, 2002.

Introduction

The structure was built from 1887-1889 as the entrance arch for the Exposition Universelle (1889), a World's fair at the centennial celebration of the French revolution. It was inaugurated on March 31, 1889, and opened on May 6. 300 steel workers joined together 18,038 pieces of steel, using two and a half million rivets. Considering the safety standards in place at the time, it is remarkable that only one worker died in the construction of the tower, during the installation of the lifts (elevators).

The tower is 300 metres tall, (986 feet), not including the television antenna on top, which adds another 20 meters, and weighs over 10,000 tonnes (over 21,000,000 pounds). When it was built it was the highest structure in the World. Maintenance on the tower includes 50 tons of dark brown paint every 7 years. Depending on the ambient temperature, the Eiffel Tower will change height by several centimetres because of contraction and expansion of the metal.

Perhaps predictably, the tower met with resistance from the public when it was first built, many thought it would be an eyesore. Today it is widely considered to be one of the most striking pieces of architectural art in the world.

One of the great Hollywood movie clichés is that the view from a Parisian window always includes the Eiffel Tower.

Originally, Eiffel had a permit to leave the tower standing for 20 years, but as it proved valuable for communication purposes, it was allowed to stay after the end of the permit.

Events

On January 12, 1908, the first long-distance radio message was sent from the tower.

Father Theodor Wulf in 1910 took observations of radiation at the top and bottom of the Eiffel Tower, discovering more than was expected at the top, and thereby detecting what are today known as cosmic rays.

In 1925, the con artist Victor Lustig twice "sold" the Eiffel Tower for scrap.

In 1929, the Tower lost the title of the World's tallest structure when the Chrysler Building was completed in New York.

When Adolf Hitler visited Paris in World War II, the lifts were put out of action by the French so that he would have to climb the 1792 steps to the summit - the part to repair them was allegedly impossible to obtain because of the war, though it was working again within hours of the departure of the Nazis. He chose to stay on the ground.

On January 3, 1956 a fire damaged the top of the tower.

In 1959 the present radio antenna was added to the top.

In the 1980s an old restaurant and its supporting iron scaffolding midway up the tower was dismantled; this was purchased and reconstructed in New Orleans, Louisiana, originally as the Tour Eiffel Restaurant, more recently known as the Red Room.

In the year 2000, flashing lights and several high power searchlights were installed on the tower. Since then the light show has become a nightly event. The searchlights on top of the tower make it a beacon in Paris' night sky.

At 19:20 on July 22, 2003, a fire occurred at the top of the tower in the broadcasting equipment room. The entire tower was evacuated; the fire was extinguished after forty minutes, and there were no reports of injuries.


View from the Tower down the Champ de Mars, with the Tour Montparnasse (Montparnasse Tower) in the distance.

View from the Tower across the River Seine, showing the Trocadero gardens and the Palais de Chaillot. A pleasure boat cruises on the river.


Reproductions and Imitations

Several reproductions of the Eiffel Tower (often smaller-scale) are found in:

Access

External links

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Eurocopter Group

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

The Eurocopter Group is a global helicopter manufacturing and support company formed in 1992 from the merger the helicopter divisions of French Aerospatiale and German DaimlerChrysler Aerospace AG (DASA).


Eurocopter EC120B
Larger version

In 2001, Eurocopter's worldwide and American market share were 40% and 30% respectively.

The Eurocopter Group is a wholly-owned subsidiary of EADS.

Products

Eurocopter manufactures or has manufactured these helicopters:

On Eurocopter aircraft the main rotor turns clockwise when viewed from above, unlike most American rotorcraft. This requires the pilot to make pedal movements that are the opposite to those learnt if previous flying has been on an American aircraft.

Eurocopter also pioneered the use of the 'fenestron' - an enclosed tail-rotor, which is more efficient and safer than the exposed version. For a close-up of a fenestron of the helicopter above (the Eurocopter EC120B), click here

External link

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Helicopter

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

A helicopter is an aircraft which is lifted and propelled by one or two large horizontal rotors (propellers). Helicopters are classified as rotary-wing aircraft to distinguish them from conventional fixed-wing aircraft. The word helicopter is derived from the Greek words helix (spiral) and pteron (wing).


Robinson Helicopter Company (USA) R44, a four seat development of the R22.
Larger version

The idea of the helicopter was first conceived by Leonardo da Vinci in the 15th century, but it was not until after the invention of the powered aeroplane in the 20th century that actual models were produced. Developers such as Louis Breguet, Juan de la Cierva, Emile Berliner, and Igor Sikorsky pioneered this type of aircraft. A flight of the first fully controllable helicopter Focke-Wulf Fw 61 was demonstrated by Hanna Reitsch 1936 in Berlin, Germany.

Helicopters have many uses, both military and civil, including troop transportation, infantry support, firefighting, business transportation, casualty evacuation (including MEDEVAC, and air/sea/mountain rescue), police and civilian surveillance, carrying goods (some helicopters can carry a slung load, which allows them to carry extremely awkward loads), or as a mount for still, film or television cameras.

Compared to conventional fixed-wing aircraft, helicopters are much more complex, more expensive to buy and operate, relatively slow, have poor range and restricted payload. The compensating advantage is maneuverability: helicopters can hover in place, reverse, and above all take off and land vertically. Subject only to refueling facilities, a helicopter can travel to any location, and land anywhere with a clearing a rotor disk and a half in diameter.

Generating lift

A conventional aircraft is able to fly because its forward motion forces air to pass rapidly above and below the wings, which are shaped and angled in such a way that an area of lower air pressure is created above the wing, and this "sucks" the aircraft up: it generates lift. A helicopter uses exactly the same method, except that instead of moving the entire aircraft, only the wings themselves are moved. The helicopter's rotor can simply be regarded as rotating wings.


The eight-bladed fenestron of the EC120B Eurocopter. For a picture of the complete helicopter click here
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Turning the rotor generates lift but it also applies a reverse force to the vehicle, that would spin the helicopter in the opposite direction to the rotor. The most common way to counteract this torque is to have a smaller vertical propeller mounted at the rear of the aircraft called a tail rotor. If the rotor is shrouded (i.e., a fan embedded in the vertical tail) it is called a fenestron. Other helicopters use a "Notar" design: they blow air through a nozzle to counter the torque. Notar is an acronym meaning No TAil Rotor.

Another alternative, which saves the weight of a tail boom and rotor but adds its own complexities, is to use two large horizontal rotors which turn in opposite directions. An example is the Boeing CH-47 Chinook or the Kamov Ka-50.

Controlling flight

Useful flight requires that an aircraft be controlled in all three dimensions. In a fixed-wing aircraft, this is easy: small movable surfaces are adjusted to change the aircraft's shape so that the air rushing past pushes it in the desired direction. In a helicopter, however, there often isn't enough airspeed for this method to be practical.

For left-right horizontal direction (yaw) the antitorque system is used. Varying the pitch of the tail rotor alters the sideways thrust produced. Dual-rotor helicopters have a differential between the two rotor transmissions that can be adjusted by an electric or hydraulic motor to transmit differential torque and thus turn the helicopter. Yaw controls are usually operated with anti-torque pedals, on the floor in the same place as a fixed-wing aircraft's rudder pedals.

For pitch (tilting forward and back) or roll (tilting sideways) the angle of the main rotor is altered. 




 Enstrom (USA) 280FX Shark, an aerodynamically restyled F28 for the corporate market.
 Data: max speed 189 km/h (117 mph), three-blade main rotor of diameter 9.8 metres (32 feet), one Textron Lycoming supercharged piston engine, first flight (as the F28A) in 1962. 

Larger version





Helicopters maneuver with three flight controls besides the pedals. The collective pitch control lever controls the collective pitch, or angle-of-attack, of the helicopter blades together, that is, equally throughout the 360 degree plane-of-rotation of the main rotor system.  When the angle-of-attack is increased, the blade produces more lift. The collective control is usually a lever at the pilot's left side, near his leg. Increasing the collective and adding power with throttle causes a helicopter to rise.  

The throttle controls the absolute power produced by the engine that is connected to the rotor by a transmission.  In piston-powered helicopters it is usually a twist grip on the collective. The pilot manipulates the throttle to maintain rotor RPM and therefore regulates the effect of drag on the rotor system. Turbine engined helicopters use servo-feedback loop in their engine controls to maintain rotor RPM and relieves the pilot of routine responsibility for that task. 

The cyclic changes the pitch of the blades cyclically, causing the lift to vary across the plane of the rotor disk.  This is how the pilot causes the rotor system to tilt, and the helicopter to move. The cyclic is usually controlled by the stick in front of the pilot.

As a helicopter moves forward, the rotor blades on one side move at rotor tip speed plus the aircraft speed and is called the advancing blade. As the blade swings to the other side of the helicopter, it moves at rotor tip speed minus aircraft speed and is called the retreating blade. To compensate for the added lift on the advancing blade and the decreased lift on the retreating blade - lift being a function of an airfoils angle-of-attack and its relative airspeed - the angle-of-attack of the blades is regulated by the geometry of the rotor blade control system and mechanisms that allow the blades to flap up and down. This fact of advancing and retreating blades defines the speed limitations of the helicopter.

If the angle-of-attack of any wing, including rotor blades, is too high, the airflow above the wing separates causing instant loss of lift and increase in drag. This condition is called aerodynamic stall.  On a helicopter, this can happen in any of three ways. 1. As helicopter speed increases, the advancing blades approach the speed of sound and generate shock waves that disrupt the airflow over the blade causing loss of lift. 2. As helicopter speeds increase, the retreating blade experiences lower relative airspeeds and the controls compensate with higher angle-of-attack. With a low enough relative airspeed and a high enough angle-of-attack, aerodynamic stall is inevitable. This is called retreating blade stall. 3. Any low rotor RPM flight condition accompanied by increasing collective pitch application will cause aerodynamic stall. 

Helicopters are powered aircraft, but they can still fly without power by using the momentum in the rotors and using downward motion to force air through the rotors.  The rotors act like a "windmill" and turn.  This technique is known as autorotation, and will give the helicopter a few precious seconds to quickly find a landing spot if its engine fails.




 Ex-military Westland Scout AH.1 (XV134), now on the UK Civil Register  

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Helicopters are always designed so that even if the engines fail, autorotation will power the tail rotor or torque differential.  Helicopters retain all flight controls when unpowered.

A very peculiar feature of the cyclic is that the lift is made to occur 90 degrees of rotation before the direction of tilt.  This is because when one tries to tilt a spinning object (like a rotor), it moves at right angles to the direction of the force.  This is called "gyroscopic precession."  So control forces on the rotor are rotated 90 degrees before the desired motion. For example, forward motion requires less lift at the front of the disk and more lift at the rear of the disk, so the pilot pushes the cyclic forward.  The helicopter's control linkages rotate the pitching forces 90 degrees backwards against the rotor spin, to push on the sides of the rotor rather than its front and back.

It took inventors many years to recognize precession, and to learn how to arrange the cyclic's control system to overcome it.


Limitations of rotary-wing flight

The single most obvious limitation of the helicopter is its slow speed. There are several reasons why a helicopter cannot fly as fast as a fixed wing aircraft.


During the closing years of the 20th century helicopter designers began working on noise reduction.  Urban communities have often expressed great dislike of noisy aircraft, and police and passenger helicopters can be unpopular. The redesigns followed the closure of some city heliports and government action to constrain flight paths in national parks and other places of natural beauty. 

Helicopters vibrate.  An unadjusted helicopter can easily vibrate so much that it will shake itself apart. To reduce vibration, all helicopters have rotor adjustments for height and pitch.  Most also have vibration dampers for height and pitch.  Some also use mechanical feedback systems to sense and counter vibration. Usually the feedback system uses a mass as a "stable reference" and a linkage from the mass operates a flap to adjust the rotor's angle of attack to counter the vibration. Adjustment is difficult in part because measurement of the vibration is hard.  The most common adjustment measurement system is to use a stroboscopic flash lamp, and observe painted markings or colored reflectors on the underside of the rotor blades.  The traditional low-tech system is to mount colored chalk on the rotor tips, and see how they mark a linen sheet.


Helicopter Models and Identification

In identifying conventional helicopters during flight it is helpful to realise that when viewed from below the rotor of a French, Russian, Soviet or Ukrainian designed helicopter rotates anti-clockwise, whilst a helicopter completed in Italy, the UK or USA rotates clockwise. 

Some companies, notably Schweizer in the USA, are developing remotely-controlled variants of light helicopters for use in future battlefields.

Popular civil helicopters include the:

US Army helicopters:
large gatherings of small US Army helicopters have been nicknamed "chocolate mice".

Other military helicopters include:

Hybrid types that combine features of helicopters and fixed wing designs include the experimental Fairey Rotordyne of the 1950s and the Bell Boeing Osprey, which is on order by the US Marine Corps and is the first mass produced tilt-rotor to enter service.

See also autogyro, a historical predecessor of the helicopter, which gains lift from an unpowered rotor.


External Links
 

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Helmet (band)
(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
Helmet were formed in New York by Page Hamilton (vocals/guitar) with Henry Bogdan (bass), Peter Mengede (guitar) and John Stanier (drums).

They released their debut album Strap It On in 1991 through Amphetamine Reptile, after which they were signed to Interscope. Peter Mengede left after Betty in 1994, to be replaced by Rob Echeverria who, in turn, left to join Biohazard. He was replaced by Chris Traynor of Orange 9mm. In 1995, Helmet, with singer David Yow, contributed the song "Custard Pie" to the Encomium tribute album to Led Zeppelin. 

Helmet were cited as an influence by many bands, including Silverchair


Discography:


External Links:

Helmet Fan Site
Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Helmet (band)."
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Here
(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
Here is the place you are now, wherever that happens to be.  In English, here can function as a pronoun, an adverb, and in some dialects as an adjective.  It comes from Old English hêr, and as such is cognate with Latin cis, "on this side of".  

It can be contrasted with there, which is somewhere else; and with anywhere, which theoretically includes both here and all possible theres; and with nowhere, which excludes both here and there.

Hither is the direction that leads to here.  When you tell someone to come hither you are asking them to come in your direction.  When you tell someone to come here you are asking them to come to your location.  There is a difference. Similarly, hence means "from here". "Hence" also means "therefore", in which sense it expresses a figurative rather than literal meaning of "from here".

Omnipresence is one of the traditional attributes of God in monotheistic theology.  It means that wherever you are, God is here.  

Baba Ram Dass, the Hindu writer, wrote a 1971 book in which he advised his readers to Be Here Now.

If you are human, it is extremely likely that you are within the Virgo Supercluster, inside the Local Group and in that more specifically in a spiral arm of the Milky Way galaxy in the solar system of the Sun. You may be in orbit around earth, but more likely you are somewhere on or below the surface of it or submerged or in flight or are suspended above it by a human construction or natural entity or phenomenon.


See also


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History of the halfpenny
(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
This article discusses the history of the English and British Halfpenny coin, from the 12th century onwards. Interested readers are advised to read the parallel article on the penny, which gives detailed descriptions of the contemporary penny coins, and of the dynastic struggles in British history, which it is not intended to repeat here.

It was long considered that the first halfpenny coins were produced in the reign of King Edward I (1272-1307), with earlier requirements for small change being provided by "cut coinage" i.e. pennies cut into halves or quarters, usually along the cross which formed a prominent part of the reverse of the coin. However in recent years metal detectorists have discovered a few halfpennies of Kings Henry I (1100-1135) and Henry III (1216-1272) -- these are extremely rare and very little is known about them; they have all been found in the London area, and they circulated alongside the more common cut coinage, and while it is possible that these coins were patterns or trials, it is clear that they did see circulation. No known documentary evidence of these coins exists, and it is possible that there are other coins or issues still to be discovered.


Early halfpennies

A few Henry I silver halfpennies have been discovered recently. The issue is possibly a pattern or trial, but it is obvious that several specimens entered circulation. The obverse features an uncrowned front-facing bust of the king, with the inscription HENRIC REX -- King Henry -- while the obverse features a cross with the identification of the moneyer GODWIN A ON WI -- Godwin of Winchester.

Two issues, both struck at the London mint, have been discovered recently. Both are in the short-cross style of King Henry III, produced between 1216 and 1247, and are similar in design to the pennies, but only half the size. The obverse shows a crowned bust of the king holding a sceptre, with the inscription HENRICUS REX, while the reverse shows a small cross with four pellets in each quarter with the moneyer's inscription TERRI (or ELIS) ON LUND --Terry (or Elis) of London.


Edwardian and Henrician halfpennies

King Edward I (1272-1307) successfully introduced the halfpenny as part of his new coinage, which allowed trade to increase. As with all coins of this period, the denomination was not written on the coin, which was worth its weight in silver, thus a halfpenny was half the size and weight of a penny. All hammered coinage halfpennies tend to be difficult to identify because they were small, often clipped, and in poor condition, and the legends on the coins are often incorrect because of the difficulty in making dies which were small enough for the denomination. The fact that Kings Edward II, III, and IV also issued halfpennies make it difficult to distinguish between them -- in general, Edward I's coins are slightly larger than his successors'. As with other denominations, by far the majority of coins were produced at the London mint, in the Tower of London, but five other mints were active in Edward I's reign. The legend on the reverse of the coin identifies the mint's name, and reads CIVITAS LONDON or LONDONIENSIS for London, VILLA BRISTOLLIE for Bristol, CIVITAS LINCOL for Lincoln, NOVI CASTRI for Newcastle-upon-Tyne, CIVITAS EBORACI for York, and VILLA BEREVVICI for Berwick-upon-Tweed. 

The king's name appears on the obverse inscription, usually EDW, EDWA, or EDWR R ANGL DNS HYB, or RICARD or HENRI for an issue of Richard II (1377-1399) or Henry IV (1399-1413).

In the reign of Edward II (1307-1327), halfpennies were only produced at the mints in London and Berwick, probably because sufficient were produced when his father introduced the new coinage. The principal difference between the coins of Edward II and his father is that the obverse inscription of the London-produced coins read EDWARDUS REX A(NG), and EDWARDUS REX AN on the Berwick-produced coins.

Three mints were actively producing halfpennies in the reign of Edward III, 1327-1377, at London, Berwick, and Reading (VILLA RADINGY), although Berwick and Reading coins are very rare. The usual obverse inscription of this reign was EDWARDUS REX AN -- Edward King of the English -- or occasionally on earlier coins EDWARDUS REX -- King Edward -- or EDWARDUS ANGLIE D or EDWARDUS DEI GRA R -- Edward by the grace of God King of England. At this time English coins were much envied in Europe for their weight and good metal content, with the result that English halfpennies were copied on the continent; they are similar in style to those of Edward III, but the obverse legend often reads EDWARDIENSIS.

King Richard II (1377-1399), produced all his halfpennies at the London mint. The obverse legend reads RICHARD (or RICARD) REX ANGL -- Richard King of England -- around a front-facing bust of the king.

Henry IV's (1399-1413) halfpennies are difficult to identify, mainly because they have been heavily clipped or worn. The obverse legend reads HENRIC REX ANGL around a front-facing bust of the king, while the reverse legend reads CIVITAS LONDON. In 1412 the weight of the halfpenny was reduced from 4.5 grains (0.29 grams) to 3.75 grains (0.24 grams), although coins were produced from the same dies as before.

Henry V's (1413-1422) halfpennies are a little easier to identify, but the basic design remained the same as before.

In the first reign of Henry VI (1422-1461), halfpennies were commonly produced at London, Calais (VILLA CALIS), and less commonly at York. The designs are basically continuations of those of the earlier Henries, with the obverse legend HENRIC REX ANGL. 

The halfpennies of the first reign of King Edward IV (1461-1470) are divided into the heavy coinage up to 1464, which was only minted in London, and the light coinage from 1464, produced at London, Bristol (now VILLA BRISTOW), Canterbury (CIVITAS CANTOR), York, and Norwich (CIVITAS NORWIC). The obverse inscription reads EDWARD DI GRA REX.

During the short second reign of Henry VI (1470-1471), halfpennies were prodiced at London and Bristol. The obverse inscription was changed to read HENRIC DI GRA REX.

Halfpennies of the second reign of Edward IV (1471-1483) are much like those of the first reign (only a few months earlier), with the addition that they were also produced at Durham (CIVITAS DERAM).

King Richard III's (1483-1485) short reign only produced halfpennies from the London mint. The obverse inscription reads RICARD DI GRA REX, which distinguishes the coins from those of Richard II.


Tudor halfpennies

Henry VII's (1485-1509) halfpennies were produced mostly at London, but also at Canterbury and York. Henry's coins are fairly distinct from those of the earlier Henries, with the king's front-facing portrait being different in style, and the obverse legend reading HENRIC DEI GRA REX.

By the reign of King Henry VIII, the halfpenny was becoming a coin of lesser importance, and less effort was spent on producing good-quality impressions on the coin blanks, with the result that many of the inscriptions are difficult to read. The coins of his first and second coinage (1509-1526, and 1526-1544) look similar to those of his father, Henry VII, although the obverse inscriptions were changed between the two coinages, from HENRIC DI GRA REX ANGL to H DG ROSA SIE SPIA -- Henry by the grace of God a rose without a thorn.

The third (1544-1547) and posthumous (1547-1551) coinage halfpennies have a more life-like bust, but were of course produced in debased silver (only 1/3rd silver, and 2/3rds copper) and therefore are usually in a very poor condition.

In the short reign (1547-1553) of King Edward VI there were several issues of halfpennies. The first issue was produced between April 1547 and January 1549 at the Tower and Bristol mints, both mints' products are extremely rare and had the crowned bust of the king on the obverse, with the inscription EDG ROSA SIN SPIN (or ED6 DG ROSA SIN SPIN on some Bristol coins), and a cross with CIVITAS LONDON or CIVITAS BRISTOLI on the reverse. The final issue of halfpennies was produced at the Tower mint between 1550 and 1553 with the obverse legend being EDG ROSA SINE SPINA surrounding a rose in the centre of the coin, and the reverse showing CIVITAS LONDON around the royal shield over a cross. The quality of silver in this final issue of halfpennies was so poor that the coin was often used as a farthing.

No halfpennies were produced in the reigns of Mary, or of Philip and Mary, or for the first 20 years of the reign of Queen Elizabeth I.

Halfpennies were produced in some quantity in Elizabeth I's fifth and sixth coinage issues (1582-1600, and 1601-1602). Because of their small size, they did not have the queen's effigy or any legends on them, but instead had a portcullis on the obverse and a cross on the reverse. Sixth issue coins also had a mintmark on the obverse, "1" for 1601, and "2" for 1602.


17th century silver halfpennies

When James I ascended the throne in 1603, for the first couple of years halfpennies were produced in the same style as Elizabeth I's sixth issue, though with a thistle or lis mintmark. From 1604 onwards, there was a completely different style of coin of a rose on the obverse and a thistle on the reverse.

Surprisingly, considering the huge variety of coins of other denominations produced during his reign between 1625 and 1649, hardly any halfpennies were minted during the reign of Charles I. The commonest issue was produced at the Tower mint and simply had a rose on both sides of the coin. The other issue was produced at the Aberystwyth mint, and had a rose on one side and plumes on the reverse.

The final silver halfpennies were produced under the auspices of the Commonwealth. Commonwealth halfpennies were extremely plain, having no inscription on either side, but a shield containing St George's cross on the obverse, and the Irish harp on the reverse.


Base-metal halfpennies

In the early years of the reign of King Charles II (1660-1685) there was a clear need for low denomination coins to fund day-to-day purchases. The silver 1d and 2d coins issued in the first few years of the reign were being hoarded, and tradesmen in many parts of the country had taken to issuing private tokens in base metal; while this was an offence, in practice penalties were minimal and the government appreciated the need for such coinage which was not available legally. A problem with the production of low-value coins is that if the face value is less than the cost of production (including the metal) then the exercise is done at a loss and the coins may be clipped or melted down for their metal content; if the face value is higher then counterfeit coins begin to appear. The Mint was not ready to produce copper coins until 1672: by that time Maundy-type small silver (1d-4d) coins were being produced and were circulating widely, so therefore no copper pennies were produced, although a Royal Proclamation in August 1672 decreed that halfpennies and farthings would be issued, and that they would have a face value equal to the value of the metal less the cost of producing them. The new coins were legal tender up to a total value of six pence, and depicted Britannia (modelled by the Duchess of Richmond) on the reverse. It was soon discovered that the Mint was incapable of producing the copper blanks needed for the new coins, and these eventually were imported from Sweden; to facilitate the process, the Customs Duty on the import of the metal was waived. Further delays ensued, caused not least by transportation problems, and the first halfpennies did not appear in circulation until after Christmas (remembering that the year did not end until March 24th in those days, so there were still three months before the start of 1673).

The ideal of of striking coins with a value equal to their production costs was not long maintained, and the coins were given a face value slightly higher than their metal content, so inevitably counterfeits soon began to appear.

It is interesting to note that Charles II's head faces left on the copper coinage, and right on the silver coinage.

The copper halfpenny weighed 10.0 - 12.0 grams and had a diameter of 28-31 millimetres. The inscription on the obverse, around the kings' head, reads CAROLVS A CAROLO -- Charles, son of Charles, while the reverse shows BRITAN NIA around the left facing seated Britannia, holding a spray and trident, with the date beneath Britannia. Coins were produced dated 1672, 1673, and 1675.

The halfpennies of King James II (1685-1688) were made of tin with a small square plug of copper in the centre. The corrosion properties of tin mean that very few coins survive in a good state of preservation, not helped by the electrochemical reaction between copper and tin. The object of using tin was to produce coins at a profit while at the same time producing a coin which would be difficult to counterfeit, and at the same time assist the ailing tin-mining industry. The coins weighed 10.5 - 11.6 grams with a diameter of 28 - 30 millimetres. The obverse showed the right facing effigy of the king with the inscription IACOBVS SECVNDVS -- James the Second -- while the reverse shows the same Britannia as before. Unusually, the date appears not on the reverse but on the edge of the coin, which has the inscription NVMMORVM FAMVLVS date -- a subsidiary coinage. The coins were produced in 1685, 1686, and 1687.

In the joint reign of William III and Mary II (1688-1694) the production of bimetallic tin/copper halfpennies continued in 1689, 1690, 1691 and 1692. However the tin coinage was becoming increasingly unpopular because the public did not feel that there was any intrinsic value in the coins and also the corrosion problem had become apparent; even worse, lead counterfeits had started to appear. Just before the queens' death from smallpox in 1694 a copper halfpenny, weighing 9.1 - 11.7 grams with 28-31 millimetres diameter was reintroduced. The contract for the new coins stipulated that the copper used should be English and the blanks struck at the Mint. It is noticeable that Charles II's Swedish-copper halfpennies have toned to a dark red colour, while the William and Mary halfpennies tone to black, presumably because of different trace elements in the copper.

The obverse inscription read GVLIELMVS ET MARIA, while the reverse reads BRITANNIA (with the date beneath Britannia in 1694). The 1689-1692 coins have the edge inscription NVMMORVM FAMVLVS date. 

For the widowed king William III, the production of halfpennies continued under the contract granted during the previous reign. However it soon became apparent that the manufacturers were in breach of contract -- to save costs, not only were some of the blanks being cast rather than struck, but some of the coins were themselves being cast in one operation. There were other ways in which the manufacturers were economising on expenses -- cheap labour was being used, including foreigners some of whom could not spell or punctuate the words they were engraving on the dies. Towards the end of the reign both the workmanship and the design and production of the dies for the copper coinage had sunk to a nadir, which is curious as simultaneously the mint was producing the highest quality work in the five and two guinea pieces which were being produced. By 1698 there was a glut of copper coinage and an Act was passed to stop the coining for one year; this seems to have had little effect and the proliferation continued. There were further Parliamentary attempts to control the glut of coinage later.

The William III halfpenny appears with various distinct types of engraving of the kings' head, Britannia, and the inscriptions, with the quality getting worse as the reign wore on. The coins were copper, weighing 8.9 to 11.5 grams, with a diameter of 28-29 millimetres. The kings' effigy on the obverse faced right, with the inscription GVLIELMVS TERTIVS -- William the Third; Britannia appears on the reverse with the inscription BRITANNIA and the date normally in the exergue beneath Britannia. Coins were produced each year between 1695 and 1701. 

The glut of copper coinage was sufficient that there was no need to produce any copper halfpennies during the reign of Queen Anne (1701-1714).


The United Kingdom

Soon after the accession of King George I (1714-1727) the surplus of copper coins was used up, and in 1717 a new contract was signed and a Royal Warrant issued for the production of a new halfpenny. The halfpennies struck in 1717 and 1718 looked slightly odd as they were smaller, thicker and somewhat lighter than the previous issues, weighing 9.4 - 10.3 grams with a diameter of 25-27 millimetres, but they were well-struck with high-relief features of the right-facing head of King George and the inscription GEORGIVS REX on the obverse, and Britannia with the inscription BRITANNIA and the date in the exergue beneath Britannia. The 1717-18 issue is known as the dump halfpenny. For the 1719-1724 issue the size of the coin was increased to 26-29 millimetres, though with the same weight of metal as before.

George II's (1727-1760) halfpennies were the most prolific issue yet, but to them must be added a huge range of counterfeits (and pieces similar to counterfeits but with markedly different legends from the real coins, so that the manufacturers could avoid accusations of counterfeiting). Many genuine coins were melted down and underweight fabrications produced from the molten metal. It is difficult for those of us who use a modern regulated currency to appreciate the extent to which counterfeiting had debased the currency -- for long periods of time, counterfeits outnumbered genuine coins. Halfpennies were produced in all years between 1729 and 1754, with the exception of 1741. They weighed 9.7 - 10.3 grams and had a diameter of 28-30 millimetres. The obverse showed the left-facing head of King George and the inscription GEORGIVS II REX on the obverse, and Britannia with the inscription BRITANNIA and the date in the exergue beneath Britannia.

In the reign of King George III (1760-1820) the first issue of halfpennies did not come until 10 years after the king's accession, in 1770. Counterfeiting was rampant, and in 1771 the utterance of counterfeit copper coin became a felony; this however had little effect and for the next twenty years or so the majority of copper so-called coins in circulation were forgeries. In March 1782 a woman counterfeiter was hanged, then fixed to a stake and burned before the debtor's door at Newgate prison in London. In a letter to Lord Hawkesbury of 14 April 1789, Matthew Boulton commented "In the course of my journeys, I observe that I receive upon an average two-thirds counterfeit halfpence for change at toll-gates, etc., and I believe the evil is daily increasing, as the spurious money is carried into circulation by the lowest class of manufacturers, who pay with it the principal part of the wages of the poor people they employ". Boulton's contract in 1797 to produce the Cartwheel pennies and twopences, thwarting the counterfeiters, did not extend to producing the halfpenny, though Boulton had expected that it would, and had prepared patterns of the appropriate size and weight in accordance with his ideas on the intrinsic value of copper coins. The reason the government gave for the omission of the denomination from the contract was that the large number of de facto halfpennies (including tokens and fakes!) would be driven out of circulation and Boulton would be unable to produce enough coins to meet the demand that would ensue. Public demand for legal halfpennies soon forced the government to change its mind, and in 1798 a contract was issued to Boulton for him to produce halfpennies and farthings dated 1799. However in the meantime the price of copper had risen, and consequently the weight of the coins was reduced slightly, which resulted in them not being as popular as expected. In 1806 a further 427.5 tons of copper was struck into halfpennies by Boulton, but the price of copper had risen again and the weight was even less than the 1799 issue. This time, however, there was no unfavourable reaction from the public, so perhaps the national obsession with "intrinsic value" was over.

George III halfpennies were produced in three distinct phases:-

After the mint moved from the Tower of London to Tower Hill the production of gold and silver coins took precedence over copper. The production of copper coins did not resume until the reign of King George IV (1820-1830), when farthings were produced in 1821. The issue of new halfpennies did not happen until 14 November 1825 as a result of a disagreement between the egocentric designer Pistrucci and the authorities, which resulted in William Wyon being invited to design the coins instead. This delay may be regarded as a good thing, as Wyon's designs are generally considered among the most elegant British coins. The George IV halfpenny was produced between 1825 and 1827, weighed 9.1 - 9.5 grams, with a diameter of 28 millimetres. The obverse shows a left-facing laureated bust of King George IV with the inscription GEORGIUS IV DEI GRATIA date, while the reverse shows a right-facing seated helmeted Britannia with a shield and trident, with the inscription BRITANNIAR REX FID DEF. Wyon's preference was to put the date under the king's bust, and to put the rose, thistle, and shamrock in the exergue underneath Britannia where the date commonly appeared before.

The William IV (1830-1837) halfpenny, produced in 1831, 1834, and 1837, continues the George IV design but with a right-facing bust of the new king, with the inscription GULIELMUS IIII DEI GRATIA date, while the reverse is identical to the previous reigns'.

The halfpennies of Queen Victoria's long reign (1837-1901) can be basically divided into the copper issue of 1838-1860, where the coins were 9.1 - 9.5 grams in weight and 28 millimetres in diameter, and which were very similar to the halfpennies of her two predecessors (with the obvious substitution of REG for REX on the reverse!), and the bronze issue of 1860-1901 (which itself is split between 1894 and 1895 into coins displaying the "young head" and the "old head" of the Queen). The bronze coins weighed 5.5 - 5.8 grams and were 25 millimetres in diameter. The bronze coins also featured the denomination HALF PENNY on the reverse for the first time, with the date in the exergue beneath Britannia. The inscription on the obverse of the "young head" coins reads VICTORIA D G BRITT REG F D, while on the "old head" it is VICTORIA DEI GRA BRITT REGINA FID DEF IND IMP.
Halfpennies were produced in all years of Victoria's reign except 1837, 1840, 1842, and 1850.

Halfpennies weighing 5.7 grams and of 25 millimetres diameter (which was to remain the standard size of the coin for the remainder of its existence) were minted in all years of Edward VII's reign (1901-1910) except 1901. They are similar to the last issues of Queen Victoria except for the king's right-facing bust on the obverse, with the inscription EDWARDVS VII DEI GRA BRITT OMN REX FID DEF IND IMP, and also are extremely reminiscent of the contemporary penny.

The reign of King George V produced halfpennies to an unchanged design every year between 1911 and 1936. The obverse shows a left-facing portrait of the king by Sir Bertram Mackennal, with the inscription GEORGIVS V DEI GRA BRITT OMN REX FID DEF IND IMP, and the usual right-facing Britannia on the reverse. Unlike some of the pennies of this reign, no halfpennies have mintmarks from provincial mints. Halfpennies of this reign suffer somewhat from "ghosting", caused by production problems when the image of one side partly comes through to the other; efforts were made to solve the problem with a modification of the kings' effigy in 1925, but the problem wasn't finally solved until a second modification in 1928.



A halfpenny exists for King Edward VIII, although strictly speaking it is a pattern which would have been awaiting royal approval about the time that the king abdicated in December 1936. Being somewhat vain, the king insisted that his left profile be used on the coinage instead of the right which would have been used if he had followed the alternating tradition going back to Charles II; the obverse has the inscription EDWARDVS VIII D G BR OMN REX F D IND IMP, but in a complete break from tradition Britannia was dropped from the reverse for the first time since 1672, and replaced by a sailing ship, said to represent Sir Francis Drake's Golden Hind. This reverse remained in use for the remainder of the coins' existence.

Halfpennies of a similar design to his brothers' were produced in each year of the reign of King George VI. The inscription on the obverse reads GEORGIVS VI D G BR OMN REX F D IND IMP until 1948, then GEORGIVS VI D G BR OMN REX FIDEI DEF. There are reported to be slight differences in the reverse -- the size and positioning of the ship, the inscription HALF PENNY and the date under the ship -- from year to year, but numismatists differ in opinion as to whether this is significant enough to count as a design variation each year, or just one design for the whole reign.

Unlike the penny, Queen Elizabeth II's reign produced halfpennies every year between 1953 and 1967, except for 1961. The reverse was the same as before, while the obverse featured the queen's head by Mary Gillick, with the inscription ELIZABETH II DEI GRA BRITT OMN REGINA F D in 1953, and ELIZABETH II DEI GRATIA REGINA F D for the rest of the reign. 

The halfpenny coin ceased to be legal tender after 31 July 1969, although proof coins were produced, dated 1970, for the cased proof sets bidding farewell to the old currency.


For the decimal halfpenny, circulating between 1971 and 1984, please see here.

For other denominations, please see British coinage.
Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "History of the halfpenny."
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How Archimedes used infinitesimals
(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
The ancient Greek mathematician, physicist, and engineer Archimedes of Syracuse was the first mathematician to make explicit use of infinitesimals.  His work with infinitesimals is found in the celebrated Archimedes Palimpsest.  The palimpsest embodies Archimedes' account of his "mechanical method", so called because it relies on the concepts of torque exerted on a lever and of center of gravity.  Both of those concepts were first introduced by Archimedes.

Ironically, Archimedes disbelieved in the existence of infinitesimals, and therefore said explicitly that his arguments fall short of being finished mathematical proofs.

The proof of the first proposition in the palimpsest is very beautiful, and appears below.


The first proposition in the palimpsest

The curve in this figure is a parabola.




The points A and B are on the curve. The line AC is parallel to the axis of the parabola. The line BC is tangent to the parabola.
The first proposition states:

The area of the triangle ABC is exactly three times
the area bounded by the parabola and the secant line AB


Proof: Let D be the midpoint of AC.  The point D is the fulcrum of a lever, which is the line JB. The points J and B are equidistant from the fulcrum. As Archimedes had shown, the center of gravity of the interior of the triangle is at a point I on the "lever" so located that DI:DB = 1:3. Therefore, it suffices to show that if the whole weight of the interior of the triangle rests at I, and the whole weight of the section of the parabola at J, the lever is in equilibrium. If the whole weight of the triangle rests at I, it exerts the same torque on the lever as if the infinitely small weight of every cross-section EH parallel to the axis of the parabola rests at the point G where it intersects the lever. Therefore, it suffices to show that if the weight of that cross-section rests at G and the weight of the cross-section EF of the section of the parabola rests at J, then the lever is in equilibrium.  In other words, it suffices to show that EF:GD = EH:JD. That is equivalent to EF:DG = EH:DB.  And that is equivalent to EF:EH = AE:AB.  But that is just the equation of the parabola.  Q.E.D.

Other propositions in the palimpsest

A series of other propositions of geometry are proved in the palimpsest by similar arguments.  Some of them have the location of a center of gravity as the conclusion.  One of those states that the center of gravity of the interior of a hemisphere is located 5/8 of the way from the pole to the center of the sphere.
Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "How Archimedes used infinitesimals."
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Humber River
(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
There are several rivers in the world called the Humber River.


Humber River, England on the eastern coast

Humber River, Newfoundland near Corner Brook in Canada

Humber River, Toronto


The one in England flows southward from the North Sea for 121 km.  Considering it is a wide river, more than 11 km wide at its mouth, the Humber Bridge was built in 1981 to further development along the banks of the river.

The Humber River in Toronto flows south 93 km from its origin in Orangeville to Lake Ontario.  Its eastern branch originates in Aurora, Ontario and meets the river just south of Highway 7.  The western branch flows from the Claireville Conservation Area in Brampton west into Toronto through Rexdale roughly parallel to Finch Ave., and then Albion Rd., before meeting the main branch at Summerlea Park near Weston and Sheppard.
Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Humber River."
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Invincible class aircraft carrier
(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
See also HMS Invincible

The Invincible class aircraft carrier is a design currently in use by the Royal Navy. There are three carriers of this class in operation - the HMS Invincible (R05, 1980), the HMS Illustrious (R06, 1982) and the HMS Ark Royal (R07, 1985 (initially she was to be the Indomitable)).





The sixth (and current) HMS Invincible.

Larger version




The original class design was for a 12,500 ton escort carrier as a complement to the much larger CVA fleet carrier project. The CVA was cancelled in 1966 and the escort carrier design was reworked for a ASW cruiser with six helicopters and command capability. The helicopter load was then increased to nine and the vessel was again redesigned into a 19,500 ton carrier. To avoid using the expensive word carrier the design was called a "through-deck cruiser". The successful development of the Sea Harrier meant that the plan was reworked again to include a small complement of these STOVL aircraft. In order to launch the Harrier from its comparatively short flight deck of 170m, a 'ski-jump' was included in the design of the ships, with the slope initially set at 7° for Invincible and Illustrious and 12° for Ark Royal. The class also has a secondary role as an helicopter carrier, or LPH.

The ships are armed with a variety of weapons. As built, they had two 20mm Oerlikon GAM-B01 guns, which they retain, and the Sea Dart surface-to-air missile. The Sea Dart system has been removed from all ships of the class in order to allow the flight deck to be exptended, and magazines suitable for weapons used by the Harrier GR7 to be added to the ship. Because of lessons learnt during the 1982 Falklands War, CIWS guns were added to the design. Illustrious having them fitted at the last minute before commissioning, Ark Royal had them added as a normal part of the building process, and Invincible had them fitted during her first overhaul after the Falklands. Invincible and Illustrious have three Goalkeeper CIWS systems, whereas Ark Royal has three Phalanx CIWS systems. Electronic countermeasures are provided by a Thales jamming sytem and ECM system. Sea Gnat launchers provide for chaff or flare decoys.

Prior to 1982, Invincible's airgroup consisted purely of Sea King HAS1 anti-submarine aircraft and Harrier FRS1 aircraft. Typically, nine Sea Kings, and four or five Sea Harriers were embarked. This was due to the fact that the originally envisioned mission for the ships was to provide the heart of ASW hunter-killer groups in the north Atlantic during a war against the Soviet Union. In that context, the main weapon of the carrier would not be its fighter aircraft, but its ASW helicopters. The fighters were on board to shoot down the occasional Soviet maritime patrol aircraft nosing around the ship and its escorts.

The Falklands changed all of that, since it proved that Britain still needed to retain the capability to use carrier airpower in its traditional role of power projection, both over land, and against enemy fleets (the Falklands nearly saw the first carrier vs carrier battle since WWII). The Falklands had seen Invincible, and the other aircraft carrier deployed, the larger and older HMS Hermes filled to the gunwales with both the air defence variant of the Harrier, and the Royal Air Force Harrier GR3 ground attack variant of the aircraft, along with ASW helicopters. The RAF Harriers proved to be a temporary aberration at the time, but a permanent addition to the usual airgroup was made due to lessons learnt during the war. That addition was a new type of Sea King, an Airborne Early Warning or AEW version. Illustrious carried the first examples of the type when it was rushed south in the aftermath of the Falklands to relieve Invincible of its guard duty around the islands. In the aftermath of the Falklands, the typical airgroup was 3 AEW Sea Kings, 9 ASW Sea Kings and 8 or 9 Sea Harriers.

Other improvements were made to the class during the 1980s and early 1990s, with probably the most important being the increase of the ski jump angle on Invincible and Illustrious to match the 12° slope of Ark Royal.

In more recent years, three other changes have occurred. One of those was the removal of the Sea Dart system, making the ships a great deal more like pure aircraft carriers, than the cross between cruisers and aircraft carriers that they were originally built as. It is quite surprising how much the removal of the SAM system alters the lines of the ships when viewed from the front. In company with that, the ships were fitted to routinely handle RAF Harrier GR7's, making those aircraft a routine part of the airgroup for the first time. Since then, the ships have all been fitted to handle the new  Merlin helicopters. The HM1 variant of the Merlin is replacing the HAS6 variant of the Sea King in the carrier-borne ASW role. Since the adding of the RAF Harrier facilities, typical deployments have included 7 or 8 of those aircraft, pushing the ASW Sea Kings onto the carrier's escorting ships.

The two most recent wartime deployments of the class have seen them in their secondary LPH role, as it was officially judged that Harriers could provide no useful role in the missions. During those deployments, the class has embarked RAF Chinook helicopters, in lieu of their fixed wing complement.

In the next few years, the Sea Harrier is to be retired, with the three squadrons that use the type being disbanded between early 2004 and 2006. After that, RAF Harriers will make up all of the fixed wing aircraft that operate on board the ships. Officially, Invincible will decommission in 2010, Illustrious in 2012, and Ark Royal in 2015, as two new, much larger aicraft carriers are introduced into service to replace the ships. However, there are persistent rumours that Invincible will be retired early in 2006 to save money, and that one of the ships upon decommissioning will be converted into a full LPH to complement HMS Ocean in that role.

Whatever the truth of those rumours, it is undisputed that the ships have given fine service to the Royal Navy during their careers. Invincible played a large part in winning the largest naval war since WWII, and they have kept Royal Navy fixed wing aviation alive through a very lean period.


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Jason
(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
Jason is a hero of Greek mythology.  His father was Aeson, the rightful king of Thessaly.


Birth and Childhood

Pelias (Aeson's half-brother) was power-hungry and he wished to gain dominion over all of Thessaly.  To this end, he banished Neleus (Pelias' brother) and locked Aeson in the dungeons in Iolcus.  While in there, Aeson married and had several children with Alcimede, most famously Jason.  Aeson sent Jason to Chiron to be educated while Pelias, paranoid that he would be overthrown, was warned by an oracle to beware a man wearing one sandal.

Many years later, Pelias was holding the Olympics in honor of Poseidon when Jason, rushing to Iolcus, lost one of his sandals in a river while helping someone cross. When Jason entered Iolcus, he was announced as a man wearing one sandal. Paranoid, Pelias asked him what he (Jason) would do if confronted with the man who would be his downfall.  Jason responded that he would send that man after the Golden Fleece. Pelias took that advice and sent Jason to retrieve the Golden Fleece.


The Quest For The Golden Fleece

Jason assembled a great group of heroes and a huge ship called the Argo. Together, the heroes were known as the Argonauts. They included the Boreads, Heracles, Telamon, Orpheus, Castor and Polydeuces and Euphemus.


Phineas and the Harpies

The Argonauts landed on an island inhabited by Phineas and the harpies. Phineas had been a King of Thrace, son of Agenor, who had the gift of prophecy. Zeus, angry that Phineas had revealed too much of the plans of the gods, punished him by setting him on an island with a buffet of food. He could eat none of it, however, because the harpies, vicious, winged women, stole the food out of his hands before he could eat any. This continued until the arrival of Jason and the Argonauts. They sent the winged heroes, the Boreads, after the harpies. They succeeded in driving the monsters away but did not kill them, due to a request from the goddess of the rainbow, Iris, who promised that Phineas would not be bothered by the harpies again. As thanks, Phineas told the Argonauts how to pass the Symplegades. 


Symplegades

The Sympleglades, or Clashing Rocks, were a pair of rocks at the Hellespont that clashed together randomly. The Argonauts would have been lost and killed by the rocks but for Phineas' advice. Jason let a dove fly between the rocks; it lost only its tail feathers.  The Argonauts rowed mightily to get through and lost only part of the ship's stern ornament. After that, the Symplegades stopped moving permanently.


Planctae

The Planctae were a group of rocks, between which the sea was mercilessly violent.  The Argo was the only ship to navigate them successfully (with divine help from Hera, Thetis and the Nereids).  Jason chose to brave the Planctae instead of Scylla and Charybdis.


Assorted Events

When the Argonauts stopped in Mysia, Prince Lycus treated them well.

The Argonauts were attacked by a flock of vicious birds.  These may have been the Stymphalian Birds.

Hylas was kidnapped by a nymph.  Heracles, along with Polyphemus, searched for a long time.  The ship set sail without them.

When the Argonauts stopped in Bithynia, Polydeuces killed King Amycus in a boxing match.  Idmon also died in Bithnyia; he was the seer for the Argonauts and had known he would die before setting out.

They also stopped in Scheria and were treated well by King Alcinous.

During Jason's absence, Pelias thought the Argo (Jason's ship) had sunk, and this was what he told Aeson and Promachus, Jason's brother, who committed suicide by drinking poison or were killed directly by Pelias.

The Argonauts stopped on Lemnos and had sex with the native women.  Jason had two sons by Queen Hypsipyle (Euneus and ???).


The Arrival In Colchis

Jason arrived in Colchis to claim the fleece as his own. King Aeetes of Colchic promised to give it to him only if he could perform certain tasks. First, Jason had to plow a field with fire-breathing oxen that he had to yoke himself. Then, Jason sowed the teeth of a dragon into a field. The teeth sprouted into an army of warriors. Jason was quick-thinking, however, and before they attacked him, he threw a rock into the crowd. Unable to decipher where the rock had come from, the soldiers attacked each other and defeated each other. Finally, Aeetes made Jason fight and kill the sleepless dragon that guarded the fleece. Jason then took the fleece and sailed away with Medea, who had fallen in love with him and helped him win the fleece.  Medea distracted her father as they fled by killing her brother, Apsyrtus.  In the flight, Atalanta was seriously wounded but healed by Medea.


The Return

On the way back to Thessaly, Medea propesied that Euphemus, the Argo's helmsman, would one day rule over all Libya.  This came true through Battus, a descendant of Euphemus.


Circe

When the Argonauts stopped on Aeaea, Circe purified them for the death of Apsyrtus.


Sirens

Chiron had told Jason that without the aid of Orpheus, the Argonauts would never be able to pass the Sirens.  The Sirens lived on three small, rocky islands called Sirenum scopuli and sang beautiful songs that enticed sailors to come to them.  They then ate the sailors.  When Orpheus heard their voices, he withdrew his lyre and played his music more beautifully than they, drowning out their music.


Talos

The Argo then came to the island of Crete, guarded by the bronze man, Talos.  Talos had one vein which went from his neck to his ankle, bound shut by only one bronze nail.  Medea cast a spell on Talos to calm him; she removed the bronze nail and Talos bled to death.  The Argo landed. 


Jason Returns

While Jason searched for the Golden Fleece, Hera, who was still angry at Pelias, conspired to make him fall in love with Medea, whom she hoped would kill Pelias.  When Jason and Medea returned, Pelias still refused to give up his throne.  Medea conspired to have Pelias' own daughters kill him.  She told them she could turn an old ram into a young ram by cutting up the old ram and boiling it.  During the demonstration, a live, young ram jumped out of the pot.  Excited, the girls cut their father into pieces and threw them into a pot. Pelias did not survive.

Jason and Medea then had to flee to Corinth.

Jason was later driven into exile by Acastus, and came to Corinth.  There he abandoned Medea, and she killed their children and fled.  Alternatively, he married Creusa in Corinth. Medea got even by giving Creusa a cursed dress that stuck to her body and burned her to death as soon as she put it on. She also killed Creusa's father, Creon, and her own sons with Jason.  Later Jason and Peleus would attack and defeat Acastus, reclaiming Iolcus for his house.  Jason's son, Thessalus, then became king.

Later Jason was killed when the timbers of the Argo rotted and the mast fell on him.

Though some of the episodes of Jason's story draw on ancient material, the definitive telling, on which this account relies, is that of Apollonius of Rhodes in his epic poem Argonautica, written in Alexandria in the late 3rd century BCE.



Jason is also the name of the killer in the horror movie series Friday the 13th (movie), which has spawned 10 sequels and a tv series on the Sci-Fi Channel.
Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Jason."
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John W. Young
(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
John Watts Young (born September 24, 1930) was an astronaut who walked on the Moon on Apollo 16, April 21, 1972.

Young enjoyed one of the longest and busiest careers of any astronaut in the American space program.  He was the first person to fly into space six times and twice journeyed to the moon.

Born in San Francisco, California, Young earned a bachelor of science degree in aeronautical engineering with highest honors from Georgia Institute of Technology in 1952.  After graduation Young entered the United States Navy, becoming a fighter pilot, and in 1959, a test pilot.

He joined NASA in 1962, and flew on Gemini 3, Gemini 10, Apollo 10, Apollo 16, and two space shuttle missions, STS-1, the first shuttle mission, and STS-9, the first shuttle flight with the spacelab laboratory.  As of 2003, he still works for NASA in Houston, Texas.
Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "John W. Young."
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King Solomon's Mines (movie)
(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
King Solomon's Mines is a 1950 film which tells the story of an adventurer who helps a woman look for her lost husband in Africa, and is loosely based around the novel of the same name by the writer H. Rider Haggard.  It stars Deborah Kerr, Stewart Granger and Richard Carlson.

The movie was adapted by Helen Deutsch from the novel by H. Rider Haggard.  It was directed by Compton Bennett and Andrew Marton.

It won Academy Awards for Best Cinematography, Color and Best Film Editing and was nominated for Best Picture.

King Solomon's Mines had previously been made in 1937, starring Paul Robeson, Cedric Hardwicke, Anna Lee and Roland Young.  It was adapted by Charles Bennett (uncredited), Michael Hogan, Roland Pertwee A.R. Rawlinson (uncredited) and Ralph Spence (uncredited).  It was directed by Robert Stevenson.

It was remade in 1985, starring Richard Chamberlain, Sharon Stone, Herbert Lom and John Rhys-Davies.  It was adapted by Gene Quintano and James R. Silke and directed by J. Lee Thompson.
Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "King Solomon's Mines (movie)."
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Lewes (disambiguation)
(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
Lewes is the name of several towns and cities.


Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Lewes (disambiguation)."
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List of asteroids in our Solar System
(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
The following is a list of asteroids in our Solar System.  For more specific details about any specific asteroid, please go to that asteroid's article by selecting its name from the table below.  The first table below currently lists the eighteen largest known asteroids whose orbit is nearer to the Sun than that of Jupiter.  The second table provides information about smaller asteroids of note.

In the tables below, "Number" refers to an asteroid's classification number--each asteroid, when discovered, is given a unique identifying number.



Largest Known Asteroids within Jupiter's Orbit


NumberName
Diameter (km)Mean Distance
from Sun (in AU)		Date DiscoveredDiscoverer




1Ceres
10032.766January 1 1801 Piazzi, G




2Pallas
6082.773March 28 1802 Olbers, H. W




4Vesta
5382.361March 29 1807 Olbers, H. W.




10Hygeia
4503.136April 12 1849 de Gasparis, A.




31Euphrosyne
3703.148September 1 1854 Ferguson, J.




704Interamnia
3503.067October 2 1910 Cerulli, V.




511Davida
3233.170May 30 1903 Dugan, R. S.




65Cybele
3093.437March 8 1861 Tempel, E. W.




52Europa
2893.099February 4 1858 Goldschmidt, H.




451Patienta
2763.060December 4 1899 Charlois, A.




15Eunomia
2722.644July 29 1851 de Gasparis, A.




16Psyche
2502.919March 17 1851 de Gasparis, A.




48Doris
2503.109September 19 1857 Goldschmidt, H.




92Undina
2503.189July 7 1867 Peters, C. H. F.




324Bamberga
2462.682February 25 1892 Palisa, J.




3Juno
2402.6671804K. Harding




24Themis
2343.129April 5 1853 de Gasparis, A.




95Arethusa
2303.073November 23 1867 Luther, R.






Other Noteworthy Asteroids


NumberNameDiameter (km)Year DiscoveredComment




243 Ida 56 × 24 × 21 September 29 1884 Visited by Galileo probe




 Dactyl 1.4 1991 Moon of 243 Ida




253 Mathilde 66 × 48 × 46  November 12 1885 Visited by NEAR Shoemaker




433 Eros 13 × 13 × 33 August 13 1898 Visited by NEAR Shoemaker




624 Hektor  February 10 1907 Largest Jovian Trojan asteroid discovered




951 Gaspra 19 × 12 × 11 July 30 1916 Visited by Galileo probe




2060 Chiron 170 1977 First Centaur to be discovered




4593 Reipurth  March 16 1980 discovered by Claes-Ingvar Lagerkvist 




3753 Cruithne 5 October 10 1986 Unusual Earth-associated orbit




4179 Toutatis 4.5 × 2.4 × 1.9 January 4 1989 Will approach Earth closely in 2004




4769 Castalia 1.8 × 0.8 August 9 1989 First asteroid to be imaged




5261Eureka  June 20 1990 First Martian Trojan asteroid (L5 point) discovered


  2002 AA29 0.1 January 9 2002 Unusual Earth-associated orbit 


  1950DA  February 23 1950 Will approach Earth very closely in 2880 



Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "List of asteroids in our Solar System."
Top     

List of Celtic mythological beings
(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
This is a list of beings, places or events in Celtic mythology.


  1. Abandinus

  2. Abarta 

  3. Abellio 

  4. Abhean 

  5. Abnoba 

  6. Achall 

  7. Achtan 

  8. Achtland 

  9. Adsullata 

  10. Aengus 

  11. Aericura 

  12. Aes Sidhe 

  13. Aeval 

  14. Agrona 

  15. Ai 

  16. Aibell 

  17. Aillen 

  18. Aimend 

  19. Ain 

  20. Aine 

  21. Airitech 

  22. Airmed 

  23. Alaunus 

  24. Albiorix 

  25. Alisanos 

  26. Amaethon 

  27. Ambisagrus 

  28. Anann 

  29. Ancamna 

  30. Andarta 

  31. Andraste 

  32. Anextiomarus 

  33. Annwn 

  34. Anu 

  35. Arawn 

  36. Arduinna 

  37. Arianrhod 

  38. Arnemetia 

  39. Artio 

  40. Arvernus 

  41. Aufaniae

  42. Avalloc 

  43. Aveta 

  44. Badb 

  45. Balor 

  46. Banba 

  47. Beag 

  48. Bebhionn 

  49. Belatu-Cadros 

  50. Belenus 

  51. Belisama 

  52. Blodeuwedd 

  53. Boann 

  54. Bodb 

  55. Bodb Dearg 

  56. Borvo 

  57. Bran 

  58. Branwen 

  59. Brea 

  60. Breg 

  61. Bres 

  62. Brigid 

  63. Britannia 

  64. Bronach 

  65. Caer 

  66. Cailleach 

  67. Camma 

  68. Camulus 

  69. Canola 

  70. Carman 

  71. Cartimandua 

  72. Caswallawn 

  73. Cenn Cruaich 

  74. Ceridwen 

  75. Cernunnos 

  76. Cessair 

  77. Cethlion 

  78. Cliodhna 

  79. Clota 

  80. Cocidius 

  81. Conall Cernach 

  82. Conchobar 

  83. Condatis 

  84. Conn 

  85. Contrebis 

  86. Corb 

  87. Cormac Mac Airt 

  88. Coventina 

  89. Creiddylad 

  90. Creidhne 

  91. Crom Cruach 

  92. Cu Roi 

  93. Cuchulainn 

  94. Curoi mac Daire 

  95. Cwn Annwn 

  96. Cyhiraeth 

  97. Dagda 

  98. Damara 

  99. Damona 

  100. Danu 

  101. Dea Matrona 

  102. Dea Sequana 

  103. Dechtere 

  104. Deirdre 

  105. Dewi 

  106. Dia Griene 

  107. Dian Cecht 

  108. Dis 

  109. Don 

  110. Dwyn 

  111. Dylan 

  112. Edain

  113. Efnisien 

  114. Elen 

  115. Emer 

  116. Epona 

  117. Eri 

  118. Eriu

  119. Esus 

  120. Etain 

  121. Ethne 

  122. Fagus 

  123. Fand 

  124. Ferdiad 

  125. Fergus 

  126. Fergus mac Roich 

  127. Fianna 

  128. Finn Mac Cumhail 

  129. Fionnuala 

  130. Firbolg 

  131. Fodla 

  132. Fomorians 

  133. Gae Bulg 

  134. Goibniu 

  135. Govannon 

  136. Grannus 

  137. Gwenn Teir Bronn 

  138. Gwydion 

  139. Gwynn ap Nudd 

  140. Hafgan 

  141. Hooded Spirits 

  142. Icaunus 

  143. Inghean Bhuidhe 

  144. Lasair 

  145. Latiaran 

  146. Leucetios 

  147. Lia Fail 

  148. Llew Llaw Gyffes 

  149. Llyr 

  150. Lud 

  151. Lugh 

  152. Lugos 

  153. Luxovius 

  154. Mabon 

  155. Macha 

  156. Mag Mell 

  157. Mag Tuireadh 

  158. Manannan mac Lir 

  159. Manawydan 

  160. Mannan 

  161. Maponos 

  162. Math Mathonwy 

  163. Matres 

  164. Midir 

  165. Milesians 

  166. Modron 

  167. Mog Ruith 

  168. Morrigan 

  169. Murigen 

  170. Nantosuelta 

  171. Nantosuetta 

  172. Nemausus 

  173. Nemetona 

  174. Niamh 

  175. Nisien

  176. Nodens 

  177. Nuada 

  178. Oengus Mac Oc 

  179. Ogma 

  180. Ogmios 

  181. Ogyruan 

  182. Olwen 

  183. Plur na mBan 

  184. Pryderi 

  185. Pwyll 

  186. Rhiannon 

  187. Robur 

  188. Rosmerta 

  189. Rudianos 

  190. Sabrina 

  191. Samhain 

  192. Saône 

  193. Segomo 

  194. Sequanna 

  195. Shannon 

  196. Sheila-na-gig 

  197. Shoney 

  198. Sirona 

  199. Smertios 

  200. Sucellos 

  201. Sul 

  202. Tailtiu 

  203. Taliesin 

  204. Tamesis 

  205. Taranis 

  206. Tarvos Trigaranos 

  207. Tethra 

  208. Teutates 

  209. Tir na n-Og 

  210. Tuatha Dé Danann 

  211. Twm Shon Catti 

  212. Verbeia 

  213. Vosegus 

  214. Wild Hunt
    Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "List of Celtic mythological beings."
Top     

List of generic forms in British place names
(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
The study of place names is called toponymy; for a more detailed examination of this subject relative to British place names please refer to British toponymy. 

This list gives a number of common generic forms found in British place names. It is not uncommon to find a number of these in combinative compounds. An interesting example of place naming is Torpenhow Hill, in Cumbria; the name seems to have grown by waves of new inhabitants using the name given by the previous occupants, and adding to it: the three syllables, tor, pen, how, each mean "hill" in a different language.  Moreover, there are a number of ambiguities, corruptions in spelling over the year, changes in meaning, etc. to further complicate the issue. 

In places where the Danelaw prevailed and there is uncertainty over the origin of a place name, it is common sense to prefer the Viking meaning to the Anglo-Saxon, often, however, the two are coterminous. Taking Askrigg in Yorkshire, for example, "a place where ash trees grew", while the spelling of asc is indubitably Nordic, had the place been further south it could easily have represented a corruption of the Anglo-Saxon ash. 

Unlike e.g. Anglo-Saxon place names, Cornish place names are resolved in reverse order, e.g. Tregonebris is Tre + Conebris i.e. "the settlement of Cunebris"

The terms Old English language and Anglo-Saxon language are fundamentally equivalent in meaning and represent the hybrid Germanic non-Celtic, non-Nordic, language between the Roman abandonment of Britain, and up to about 100 years after the Norman invasion in 1066. 

See also: List of British place names and their meanings, English Place-Name Society

Key to languages: L - Latin/Roman OE - Old English V - Viking/Norse C - Cornish W - Welsh SG - Scots Gaelic P - Pictish
















































































































British Place Names


Term
Origin
Meaning
Example
Position
Comments

 aber 
 W,P,K 
 mouth of (a river), confluence, a meeting of waters 
 Aberystwyth, Aberdyfi, Aberdeen 
 prefix 
   


ac, acc
OE
acorn alt. association with oak
Accrington, Acomb
 
 


 afon 
 W,SG,K 
 river 
 Aberafon
   
 afon is pronounced "AA von".  A number of UK rivers are named "Avon"  


ay (also ey)
V
island
Ramsay, Lundy, Orkney Islands
suffix (usually)
 


axe, exe
OE 
from isca, meaning water
Exeter, River Axe, River Exe, River Usk, Axminster,Axmouth, etc
 
 


beck
V
stream
Holbeck, Beckinsale, Costa Beck, Cod Beck
 
 


Bex
OE
box, the tree
Bexley, Kent Bexhill-on-Sea (the OE name of Bexhill-on-Sea was Bexelei, a glade where box grew.
 
 


bourne
OE
brook, stream
Bournemouth, Sittingbourne
 
 


bre
OE
hill
Bredon
prefix
 


bury
OE
stronghold, fort
Aylesbury, Banbury
suffix
 


by
V
settlement, village
Grimsby
suffix
 


canter
OE?
sung
Canterbury
prefix
 


carden
P
thicket
Kincardine, Cardenden
suffix
 


caster, cester, chester, caer
L
camp, fortification
Lancaster, Doncaster, Gloucester, Caister, Caerdydd, Caerleon, Manchester
suffix
Also can be corrupted e.g. Exeter, Uttoxeter


 Chipping, Cheap- 
 OE 
 Market 
 Chipping Norton, Chipping Campden, Chippenham 
   
 Also as part of a street name eg Cheapside 


 cwm 
 w 
 valley 
 Cwmbran 
 prefix 
  


 King 
 OE Cyning 
 King, tribal leader 
 King's Norton, Kingston, Kingston Bagpuize
   
  


dale
?
valley
Airedale, the valley of the river Aire
suffix
Used in Yorkshire


 deanas 
 OE 
 valley 
 Croydon, Dean Village 
 suffix 
 The geography is often the only indicator as to the original root word (cf. don, a hill)


 don 
 OE 
 hill 
 Bredon 
 suffix 
   


fax
OE, V
fair, pale
Halifax
 
 


 Fin 
 P 
 Hill (?) 
 Findochty 
 prefix 
 Possibly related to Pen  


 glen 
 SG 
 Valley 
 Rutherglen 
   
   


ham
OE
settlement, town
Oldham
suffix
Often confused by hamm, an enclosure


hurst
OE
wooded hill
Dewhurst
 
 


ing
OE: ingas
descendants or followers of
Reading i.e. the subjects of Reada
suffix
sometimes survives in its plural form e.g. Hastings


Inver
SG
 mouth of (a river), confluence, a meeting of waters 
Inverness
prefix
 


Kin
SG
Head
Kincardine
prefix
 


Lan, Lhan, Llan
K, P, W
church, church-site
Llanteglos, Cornwall, Lhanbryde, Moray Llanfair PG
prefix
  


 Law 
 OE  
from hlaw, a rounded hill
 Charlaw Warden Law 
 (usually) standalone 
 often a hill with a barrow or hillocks on its summit


 lea, ley 
 OE 
derived from leah, a woodland clearing 
 Wembley 
 (usually) suffix 
   


 Mon 
 P 
 ? 
 Moniave 
 prefix 
   


nan, nans
K
valley
Nancledra, Cornwall
prefix
 


nant
W
stream
Nantgarw
prefix
 




pen
K, OE
hill
Penzance, Cornwall

prefix
 


pit
P
farm
Pitlochry, Perthshire

prefix
 


pol
K
pool or lake
Polperro, Cornwall
prefix
 


pont
L, K, W
bridge
Pontypridd

prefix
Can also be found in its unmutated form "bont", e.g Pen-Y-Bont (Bridgend); originally from Latin pons


 shaw 
 V 
 a wood; is a corruption of howe (cf.) 
 Penshaw 
 Standalone or suffix
   


 Stoke 
 OE stoc
 Dependent farmstead, settlement 
 Stoke-on-Trent, Stoke Damerell 
 (Usually) standalone 
   


 Strath 
 P 
 Valley 
 Strathmore, Angus 
 prefix 
   


thorp, thorpe
V
village, settlement
Cleethorpes, Thorpeness
 
 


thwaite
V thveit 
a forest clearing with a dwelling
Huthwaite
suffix
 


tre
K
settlement
Trevose Head
prefix
 


tun, ton
OE: tun
enclosure, farmstead, manor, estate
Tunstead, Tonbridge i.e. the bridge of the estate; Charlton (AS: ceorla-tun, "farmstead of the churls") 
 
 



External links and references


Top     

List of legal topics
(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
This page aims to list articles on Wikipedia that are related to law. This is so that those interested in the subject can monitor changes to the pages by clicking on Related Changes in the sidebar and on the bottom of the page.

This list is not necessarily complete or up to date - if you see an article that should be here but isn't (or one that shouldn't be here but is), please update the page accordingly.  Remember that Wikipedia is not a dictionary, if you are looking for the most basic definitions of legal terms you might consider a specialized legal dictionary such as Black's Law Dictionary. The topics here attempt to develop an understanding of law as a system, that has a history which effects states and social institutionss.

Please note: Wikipedia does not give legal advice.

See other law lists at end (below) for additional categories, including case law lists.




A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z


A

Abortion, legal and moral issues -- 
Abuse of process -- 
Acquis --
Act of Parliament -- 
Actual malice --
Admiralty courts -- 
Admiralty law -- 
Adhesion contract --
Administration -- 
Administrative law -- 
Admiralty law -- 
Admission to the bar -- 
Adoption -- 
Adjudication --  
Adultery --  
Adversary system -- 
Affidavit -- 
Affiliation -- 
Affirmative defense -- 
Affreightment -- 
Agency -- 
Alimony -- 
Alternative dispute resolution -- 
American Arbitration Association -- 
American Law Institute -- 
Anarchist law -- 
Animal rights -- 
Annulment -- 
Antitrust laws -- 
Appellate court -- 
Appellate review -- 
Arbitration --  
Arraignment --
Association --  
Attorney -- 
Australian Constitutional History --
Autrefois acquit


B

B.C.L --  
Babylonian law -- 
Bailment -- 
Bachelor of Civil Law --  
Bachelor of Legal Letters -- 
Bar (law) -- 
Barratry -- 
Barrister -- 
Basic Law of various jurisdictions --  
Berne three-step test -- 
Best Interests of the Child -- 
Bill of attainder --  
Binding arbitration -- 
Black's Law Dictionary --  
Blackstone, William -- 
Breach of contract -- 
British constitutional law -- 
British nationality law


C

Call to the bar -- 
Canadian Bill of Rights --
Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms --  
Cannabis: Legal issues --  
Canon law --  
Case-based reasoning --  
Case law --  
Case law in the United States --
Cause of action --  
Certiorari --  
Chain of title -- 
Champerty -- 
Chancery --  
Charitable trust --  
Chattel --  
Child custody --  
Children's Online Privacy Protection Act --  
Child support --  
Chinese law --  
Civil code -- 
Civil commitment -- 
Civil death --
Civil law -- 
Civil law notary -- 
Civil procedure -- 
Civil rights -- 
Civil union -- 
Class action -- 
Code of Hammurabi --
Codification -- 
Collateral estoppel -- 
Collective rights -- 
Collective trade marks -- 
Commercial entity -- 
Commercial law -- 
Common carrier -- 
Common law -- 
Common-law marriage -- 
Commons --  
Community property -- 
Comparative law --  
Condominium -- 
Conflict of laws --  
Consensual crime --  
Consent --  
Consideration -- 
Constitution -- 
Constitutional amendment --  
Constitutional charter -- 
Constitutional convention -- 
Constitutional Convention -- 
Constitution of Spain -- 
Constitutional law -- 
Consuetudinary law -- 
Contempt of court -- 
Contracts --  
Conveyancing -- 
Cooperative --  
Copyright law --  
Copyright law of the European Union -- 
Corporation --  
Corporations law --  
Corpus Juris Civilis --  
Corpus Juris Secundum -- 
Costs -- 
Cour de cassation -- 
Court --  
Court of Appeals -- 
Court of last resort --  
Court of record --  
Court order --  
Courts of the United Kingdom --  
Creature of statute --
Crime --
Crime against humanity -- 
Criminal conversion -- 
Criminal law --  
Criminal justice -- 
Criminal procedure -- 
Critical legal studies -- 
Cross-examination -- 
Crown copyright -- 
Custom (law) -- 
Cyber law --


D

Defamation -- 
Defendant -- 
Defense (legal) -- 
Deliberative body -- 
Delicts -- 
Deposition -- 
Digital Millennium Copyright Act -- 
Digital signature -- 
Diplomatic immunity -- 
Direct examination -- 
Directed verdict -- 
Disbarment -- 
Discovery -- 
Division of property -- 
Divorce -- 
Domestic partner -- 
Droit de seigneur --
Due process -- 
Duress


E

Ecclesiastical courts -- 
Eminent domain -- 
English Bill of Rights -- 
English law -- 
Entertainment law --
Environmental law -- 
Equity -- 
Escheat -- 
Escrow--
Estate -- 
Estoppel -- 
European Community law -- 
Evidence -- 
Execution -- 
Executive order -- 
Expert witness -- 
Ex post facto law -- 
Evasion of the law


F

Fact -- 
Fair dealing -- 
Fair use -- 
False Claims Law -- 
Family law -- 
Family patrimony -- 
Federal constitution -- 
Federal Constitutional Court (Germany) -- 
Federal jurisdiction -- 
Federal law --
Felony -- 
Feudal land tenure -- 
Fiduciary duty -- 
Foundation -- 
Fraud -- 
Freedom of association --
Freedom of Information Act -- 
Freedom of the press --
Freedom of speech -- 
Freedom of speech (Canada) -- 
Frivolous lawsuit -- 
Fundamental justice


G

Geneva Convention --
Good faith -- 
Government -- 
Grandparent visitation 


H

Habeas corpus -- 
Halakha (Jewish law) --
Halsbury's Laws of England -- 
Hate speech -- 
Hearsay -- 
Hebrew law -- 
High Court of England and Wales -- 
Hong Kong Basic Law Article 23 -- 
Hong Kong trademark law -- 
Hostile witness -- 
Human rights -- 
Human Rights Committee -- 
Human rights issues in the United States


I

Illegitimacy -- 
Immigration -- 
Immigration Apellate Authority -- 
Immunity -- 

Impeachment --
Implied Bill of Rights -- 
Individual rights -- 
Industrial design rights -- 
Informed consent -- 
Injunction -- 
Inquisitorial system -- 

Insanity defense -- 
Insurance -- 
Integrated Circuit Topography Act -- 
Intellectual property -- 
Intermediate sanctions -- 
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights -- 
International crime -- 
International Criminal Court -- 
International environmental law -- 
International human rights instruments -- 
International law -- 
International trade law -- 
Interrogatories -- 
Intestacy -- 
Intestate succession -- 
Involuntary commitment -- 
Islamic Law


J

J.D --  
Jewish law -- 
Judge -- 
Judgment notwithstanding verdict -- 
Judicial Committee of the Privy Council -- 
Judicial discretion -- 
Judicial economy --  
Judicial independence -- 
Judicial review --  
Jurisprudence -- 
Juris Doctor -- 
Jurist --  
Jury --  
Jury instructions --
Jury nullification --
Jury trial --
jus commune -- 
jus primae noctis --
Justification


K

Kangaroo court -- 
Kosher law


L

LL.B -- 
Labor law -- 
Laches -- 
Land use -- 
Last will and testament -- 
Law -- 
Law and economics -- 
Law and literature -- 
Law basic topics -- 
Law French --  
Law of Canada -- 
Law of costs -- 
Law of Ireland --  
Law of Obligations -- 
Law of the Family -- 
Law of the Russian Federation -- 
Law of the Soviet Union -- 
Law of the United States -- 
Law of the United Kingdom --  
Law of the Sea -- 
Law school -- 
Law Society -- 
Lawsuit -- 
Lawyer -- 
Leading question -- 
Legal -- 
Legal code -- 
Legal fiction --
Legal history -- 
Legal instrument -- 
Legal positivism -- 
Legal realism -- 
Legal technicality -- 
Legislation -- 
Legislature -- 
Libel -- 
License -- 
Lien --
Limitations clause, Constitition of Canada -- 
Line of Succession -- 
lists, law related (see below) --
Litigant -- 
Living will -- 
Lord Denning -- 
Lübeck law


M

 Magdeburg law -- 
Magdeburg rights -- 
Malicious prosecution -- 
Malpractice -- 
Malum in se -- 
Malum prohibitum -- 
Mandamus -- 
Martial law -- 
Mask work -- 
Matrimonial regime -- 
Maxims of equity -- 
Maxims of law -- 
Mediation -- 
Military law -- 
Mischief --
Misdemeanor -- 
Mishpat Ivri (Hebrew law) -- 
Mistake -- 
Monarch -- 
Moral rights -- 
Morality (law)


N

Name change -- 
Napoleonic Code -- 
Natural law -- 
Negligence -- 
Non-disclosure agreement -- 
Non-profit organization -- 
Not-for-profit corporation -- 
Notary public --
Notwithstanding clause (Canadian Constitution)


O

Obligations -- 
Obscenity -- 
Online Copyright Infringement Liability Limitation Act -- 
Oral law
Original jurisdiction


P

Parens patriae -- 
Parliament -- 
Parliamentary procedure  --
Parliamentary supremacy -- 
Parliamentary system -- 
Partnership -- 
Patent -- 
patently unreasonable -- 
Paternity -- 
Patrimony -- 
Patrimony of affectation -- 
Penal law -- 
People's Republic of China's trademark law -- 
Peremptory norm --
Perjury -- 
Personal property -- 
Personality rights --
Petition --
Philosophy of law -- 
Pleading -- 
Political science -- 
Power of attorney --  
Practice of law -- 
Praemunire -- 
Preemption of State and Local Laws -- 
Preliminary hearing --
Prerogative writ -- 
Private Express Statutes --
Private international law -- 
Private bill -- 
Private law -- 
Privy Council -- 
Procedural law -- 
Product liability -- 
Property -- 
Property law -- 
Proximate cause -- 
Public domain -- 
Public property -- 
Punitive damages


Q

Quasi-delict --  
Quebec Act


R

Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act -- 
Real property -- 
Reasonable man doctrine --
Redirect examination -- 
Regulation -- 
Release --
Religious law -- 
Remedy -- 
Res ipsa loquitur -- 
Resolution of disputes -- 
Restraining order -- 
Restrictive covenant --
Reversible error -- 
Right of the first night --
Right-of-way -- 
Rights -- 
Robert's Rules of Order -- 
Roman law -- 
Royal Prerogative -- 
Rule against perpetuities -- 
Rule in Shelley's Case -- 
Rule of law -- 
Rulemaking -- 
Rules of appellate procedure -- 
Rules of evidence


S

Sanctions -- 
School of law -- 
Scottish law -- 
Secret tribunal -- 
Security for costs -- 
Self-defence -- 
Separation of powers -- 
Sexual harassment -- 
 Sharia (Islamic law) -- 
The Rule in Shelley's Case --
Sheriff -- 
Slander -- 
Social control -- 
Socialist law -- 
Sodomy law -- 
Software piracy -- 
Solicitor -- 
Southern Poverty Law Center --
Sovereign immunity -- 
Sovereignty -- 
Spanish Constitution of 1978 -- 
Spoliation of evidence -- 
Standing (law) -- 
Stare decisis -- 
Star Chamber -- 
State of Emergency -- 
Statute -- 
Statute of frauds -- 
Statute of limitations -- 
Statutory Instrument -- 
Statutory law -- 
Statutory rape -- 
Strategic lawsuits against public participation -- 
Straw man -- 
Subpoena -- 
Summary judgment -- 
Summary offence --
Summons-- 
Supreme Court -- 
Supreme Court of Canada -- 
Supreme Court of India


T

Tax law -- 
Terms of disparagement -- 
Test Act -- 
Testimony -- 
Timeshare -- 
Torts -- 
Trade-Related aspects of Intellectual Property rights --
Trade secret -- 
Trademark -- 
Trespass -- 
Trial by combat -- 
Trial by ordeal --
Trial de novo -- 
Trust -- 
Trusts and Estates --
Twelve Tables


U

Uniform Commercial Code -- 
United States Constitution -- 
United States constitutional law -- 
United States district court -- 
United States federal judicial districts -- 
United States Office of the Independent Counsel -- 
United States Supreme Court -- 
Universal Declaration of Human Rights



V

Variance -- 
Vexatious litigation -- 
Visitation


W

War crime -- 
Weimar constitution -- 
West American Digest System -- 
Will (law) -- 
Witness -- 
Writ -- 
Writ of Certiorari -- 
Writ of Habeas Corpus --  
Writ of mandamus --
Wrongful death


X


Y


Z


Other law related lists


Top     

List of mayors of Detroit, Michigan
(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
Mayors of town of Detroit:
Mayors of the City of Detroit:

Top     

List of rivers in Greece
(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
Alphabetical List:


Achelous River

Alpheus River

Andravida Creek

Aoos/Aous River

Aretha River

Asopus River (Corinthia)

Asopus River (Boeotia)

Axios River

Cephissus River (Athens and Piraeus)

Cephissus River (Eleusis)

Cladeos River

Ebros River

Erymanthus River

Eurotas River

Glaucos River/Glavkos

Larissos River

Lourdos River

Mornos River

Neda River

Peneus River (Peloponnese)

Peneus River (Tempe)

Spercheios River

Strymon/Strymonas River

Sythas River


See Also, Rivers of Europe, Rivers of the Americas, Rivers of Asia, Rivers of Africa, Rivers of Australia
Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "List of rivers in Greece."
Top     

Lyons (disambiguation)
(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
Lyons was the common English name for Lyon in France. Other places named Lyons include:


"Lyons" is also a part of the name of:

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Lyons (disambiguation)."
Top     

Maui
(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Maui is the second-largest of the Hawaiian Islands at 727 square miles (1883 km²). Maui was named for the demi-god Maui who, according to legend, raised all the Hawaiian Islands from the sea. It is also known as the "Valley Isle" for the large fertile isthmus between two volcanoes.

Maui is part of the State of Hawai'i and had a resident population of 134,007 in mid-2002; second only in the state to O'ahu. The population is diverse, with many ethnic groups having originally arrived in the islands to work sugar cane and pineapple plantations from countries of the Western Pacific rim.  Maui is part of Maui County, the other islands comprising the county being Lana'i, Kaho'olawe, and Moloka'i. The larger towns on Maui island include Kahului, Wailuku, Lahaina, and Kihei. See Maui County for a list of towns. 



Ī'ao Valley


History

Polynesians, from Tahiti and the Marquesas, were the original peoples to populate Maui. The Tahitians introduced the kapu system, a strict social order that affected all aspects of life and became the core of Hawaiian culture. The mid 1700s began the modern Hawaiian history. King  Kamehameha I took up residence (and later made his capital) in Lahaina after conquering Maui in the bloody Battle of Kepaniwai in 1790 in the Ī'ao Valley.

Captain James Cook "discovered" Maui on November 26, 1778. 
In Cook's wake came traders, whalers, loggers (e.g., of Sandalwood) and missionaries. The missionaries began to arrive from New England in 1823, choosing Lahaina because it was the capital.  They clothed the natives, banned them from dancing hula, and greatly altered the culture. They tried to keep whalers and sailors out of the bawdy houses. The missionaries taught reading and writing, created the 12-letter Hawaiian alphabet, started a printing press in Lahaina, and began writing the islands' history, until then existing only in oral accounts. They started the first school in Lahaina, which still exists today: Lahainaluna Mission School.  The Mission school opened in 1831 and was the first secondary school to open West of the Rockies.


Looking into Haleakala "crater"

At the height of the whaling era (1840-1865), Lahaina was a major whaling centre with anchorage in  Lahaina Roads; in one season over 400 ships visited Lahaina and the greatest number of ships berthed at one time was about 100. A given ship tended to stay months rather than days which explains the drinking and prostitution in the town at that time.  Whaling declined steeply at the end of the 19th century as crude oil came on-stream.

Kamehameha's descendants reigned in the islands until 1872. They were followed by rulers from another ancient family of chiefs, including Queen Liliuokalani who ruled in 1893 when the monarchy was overturned. One year later, the Republic of Hawaii was founded. The island was annexed by the United States in 1898 and made a territory in 1900. Hawai'i became the 50th state in U.S. in 1959. 

Maui was centrally involved in the Pacific War of World War II (as a staging centre, training base and for R&R), and at its peak in 1943-44 the number of troops stationed on Maui exceeded 100,000; the main base of 4th Marines was in Haiku.  Beaches (e.g., in Kihei) were used for practice landings and training in marine demolition and sabotage.

Modern Development
 

The island has experienced rapid population growth in recent years (e.g., 4.6% in 2001/2002) with Kihei one of the most rapidly growing towns in the U.S. (see chart).  The growth is occurring because many people, having visited Maui, decide to move or retire to the island.








Maui County Population, 1960-2000






19601970198019902000




Total
42,576
45,984
70,847
100,374
128,094




Change

3,408
24,863
29,527
27,720



 
Percent Change

8.0%
54.1%
41.7%
27.6%






source: CensusScope 2000 Census analysis






Population growth, the influx of new people typically from Canada and the U.S. mainland, is producing strains, including growing congestion on many of the major roads.  There is concern about the availability of affordable housing and access to water. The problem of affordable housing is that property prices have risen to levels that families on average incomes find difficult to afford (either renting or buying).  Property developers are believed to have insufficient regulatory and financial incentive to build less expensive (affordable) homes.  Maui County Council has been investigating ways of changing the situation.

There have been long-term concerns about the reliability of supply of potable water: droughts have been declared in most recent years and the Iao aquifer has been drawn down at what are believed may be unsustainable rates (above 18 million gallons per day). Whilst the situation remains unclear, and reliable supply has not been secured, recent estimates indicate that the total potential supply of potable water on Maui is (at an estimated 476 million gallons per day) many times greater than foreseeable demand.

There is a great deal of discussion about the meaning of, and the way to achieve, smart development.  There is understood to be a tension between economic growth and urbanisation on the one hand, and the wish to preserve the beauty of Maui and a relaxed way of life on the other. In the past there was a pro-growth bias in policy with developers and politicians working to stimulate the economy; now the balance has swung toward more sensitive consideration of community concerns (about the dangers of unwise growth/development) and developers no longer have everything their own way.


Economy

The major industries are agriculture and tourism.  Maui Land & Pineapple and Hawaiian Commercial and Sugar (HC&S - a subsidiary of Alexander and Baldwin Company) dominate agricultural activity. HC&S produces sugarcane on about 37,000 acres of the Maui central valley, the largest sugarcane operation remaining in Hawai'i.  The cane is irrigated mostly with water drawn from aqueducts that run from the windward (northern) slopes of Haleakala that receive considerable rainfall.  A controversial feature of sugarcane production is the burning that is done for about 9 months of the year. These are controlled burns of fields to reduce the crop to bare canes just before harvesting.  The fires produce smoke that towers above the Maui central valley most early mornings, and ash (locally referred to as "Maui snow") that is carried downwind (often towards Kihei).

The retail center for Maui residents is Kahului.

Maui is also an important centre for astronomy with the Haleakala High Altitude Observatory Site being one of the five best astronomical and space surveillance sites in the world.


Topography

Maui is a volcanic doublet: an island formed from two volcanic mountains that abut one another. The older volcano, Mauna Kahalawai, is much older and has been eroded considerably; it is called the West Maui Mountains. The larger volcano, Haleakala, rises above 10,023 feet (3,050 m). The last eruption of Haleakala occurred in ca. 1790, and this lava flow can be viewed between 'Ahihi Bay and La Perouse Bay on the southwest shore of East Maui. Both volcanoes are shield volcanoes and the low viscosity of the Hawaiian lava makes the likelihood of large explosive volcanic eruptions negligible.


Climate

At sea level Maui has a remarkably stable tropical climate with highs in the region of 80-85 fahrenheit and lows around 65-70 fahrenheit; rainfall is greater in the northern hemisphere winter (wet season is November through April).  However, because of the two volcanoes that dominate the topography of the island, Maui has a very wide range of climatic conditions depending on elevation and whether an area faces toward or away from the prevailing trade winds (blowing from the north east).  For example the top of the West Maui mountain receives over 400 inches of rainfall per year whereas Kihei receives less than 10 inches, being in the rain shadow of Haleakala (see Orographic precipitation); Kahului airport (the main airport on Maui) has average rainfall of about 19 inches whereas Olinda (upcountry above Makawao) receives about 73 inches. 

Maui has an unusual weather feature known as the Maui vortex, an area of clear sky that often forms over Pukalani due to the swirling of air (a vortex) as it enters the central valley after being forced to rise and move around Haleakala.

Maui, like the whole of Hawaii, has a hurricane season in the late summer and fall, with the storms typically approaching from the south-east.  Storms initiated by hurricanes or tropical depressions that approach from the south-east are known locally as Kona storms.


Tourism

Maui welcomed 2,225,060 tourists in 2002. The main tourism centres are Lahaina to Kapalua and Kihei-Wailea, each of which has luxury resort hotels.  Whereas O'ahu is most popular with Japanese tourists, Maui tends to appeal especially to visitors from the US mainland and Canada.

Maui is a leading whale-watching center in the Hawaiian Islands due to the fact that many Humpback whales winter in the sheltered channel waters between the islands of Maui county.  The whales migrate approximately 3,500 miles from Alaskan waters each autumn and spend the northern hemisphere winter months in the warm waters off Maui. The whales are typically sighted in pods: small groups of several adults and one or more calves. Humpbacks are an endangered species protected by U.S. federal and Hawai'i state law. There are estimated to be about 3000 humpbacks in the North Pacific.  

Among the many features on Maui popular with tourists are the "Road to Hana" (the drive from the central valley to Hana and beyond), the drive up to Haleakala crater, Makawao (and Maui's Upcountry region), the Ī'ao  Valley, and Lindbergh's grave (near Kaupo on East Maui).  



Road to HānaWai'ānapanapa

The Maui Chamber of Commerce issues medals, called Maui Dollars, that can be used as currency in local shops and are valued as collectables.


External links

simple:Maui
Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Maui."
Top     

Mushroom
(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
The term mushroom usually refers to the aboveground fruiting body (spore-producing structure) of fungi with a shaft and a cap, and in extension, referring to  the entire fungi of such appearance, but is also used to refer to many visible fungi in general. 



larger Crinipellis perniciosa
mushroom image
Spores released from the fan-shaped basidiocarp of
this inch-wide Crinipellis perniciosa mushroom can
infect cacao trees and drastically reduce yields
of the beans from which cocoa and chocolate products
are made.

Mushrooms are used extensively in cooking many cuisines. However, many mushrooms are poisonous, often resembling edible varieties, and eating them can be fatal. Picking your own wild mushrooms is extremely risky - far riskier than gathering edible plants - and a practice not to be undertaken by amateurs.  This is due to the fact that, while there are only about 400,000 species of plants worldwide, there are an estimated 1.5 million mushroom species.  Further complicating this is the lower degree of variety in easily identifiable traits between mushroom species.  Mushrooms and other fungi are studied by mycologists.  People who collect mushrooms for consumption are known as mushroom hunters, and the act of collecting them as such is called mushroom hunting - an activity with potentially deadly outcome that one should be well prepared for before attempting.

The main types of mushrooms are agarics, boletes, chanterelles,  tooth fungi, polypores, puffballs, jelly fungi, coral fungi, bracket  fungi, stinkhorns, and  cup fungi.  "True mushrooms" are classified as Basidiomycota (also known as "club fungi").

One common method used to assist in identification of mushrooms is the spore print.

Psilocybin mushrooms possess hallucinogenic properties and are commonly known as "'shrooms". A number of other mushrooms are eaten for their psychoactive effects, such as Fly Agaric.

Currently, many species of mushrooms and fungi utilized as folk medicines for thousands of years are under intense study by ethnobotanists and medical researchers. Maitake, shiitake, and reishi varieties are prominent among those being researched for their anti-cancer, anti-viral, and/or immunity-enhancement properties.

A nuclear weapon when detonated produces a mushroom cloud, so named because of its shape.


See also


External links


Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Mushroom."
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Nonvascular plant
(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
Non vascular plants lack a vascular system, which is a specialised system of tissues to carry water and dissolved food substances throughout the plant body.
Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Nonvascular plant."
Top     

North American broadcast television frequencies
(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)


North America Terrestrial Television Broadcast Bands






VHF Lo-Band


Channel NumberFrequency [in MHz]


255.25


361.25


467.25


577.25


683.25







VHF Hi-Band


Channel NumberFrequency [in MHz]


7175.25


8181.25


9187.25


10193.25


11199.25


12205.25


13211.25






UHF TV Band


Channel NumberFrequency [in MHz]


14471.25


15477.25


16483.25


17489.25


18495.25


19501.25


20507.25


21513.25


22519.25


23525.25


24531.25


25537.25


26543.25


27549.25


28555.25


29561.25


30567.25


31573.25


32579.25


33585.25


34591.25


35597.25


36603.25


37609.25


38615.25


39621.25


40627.25


41633.25


42639.25


43645.25


44651.25


45657.25


46663.25


47669.25


48675.25


49681.25


50687.25


51693.25


52699.25


53705.25


54711.25


55717.25


56723.25


57729.25


58735.25


59741.25


60747.25


61753.25


62759.25


63765.25


64771.25


65777.25


66783.25


67789.25


68795.25


69801.25
Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "North American broadcast television frequencies."
Top     

North American cable television frequencies
(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
North America Cable Television Broadcast Band








Channel NumberVideo Carrier Frequency [in MHz]
T-77.00


T-813.00


T-919.00


T-1025.00


T-1131.00


T-1237.00


T-1343.00


T-1449.00




255.25


361.25


467.25


579.25  (A-7)


685.25  (A-6)


7175.25


8181.25


9187.25


10193.25


11199.25


12205.25


13211.25




14121.25


15127.25


16133.25


17139.25


18145.25


19151.25


20157.25


21163.25


22169.25


23217.25


24223.25


25229.25


26235.25


27241.25


28247.25


29253.25


30259.25


31265.25


32271.25


33277.25


34283.25


35289.25


36295.25


37301.25


38307.25


39313.25


40319.25


41325.25


42331.25


43337.25


44343.25


45349.25


46355.25


47361.25


48367.25


49373.25


50379.25


51385.25


52391.25


53397.25


54403.25


55409.25


56415.25


57421.25


58427.25


59433.25


60439.25


61445.25


62451.25


63457.25


64463.25


65469.25


66475.25


67481.25


68487.25


69493.25


70499.25


71505.25


72511.25


73517.25


74523.25


75529.25


76535.25


77541.25


78547.25


95 91.25 (A-5)


96 97.25 (A-4)


97103.25 (A-3)


98109.25 (A-2)


99115.25 (A-1)


Top     

Northampton (disambiguation)
(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
For the original Northampton see Northampton, England.

Northampton is also a popular name for cities and towns in the United States of America:

(These are to be distinguished from North Hampton, New Hampshire.)


Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Northampton (disambiguation)."
Top     

Norwich (disambiguation)
(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
Norwich is the name of several places:

N.O.R.W.I.C.H. was also an acronym used in WWII letters.

(Probably also named for Norwich, England, but spelled differently, is Norridge, Illinois.)


Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Norwich (disambiguation)."
Top     

Paris
(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)


 

Flag of Paris




For any alternate uses of "Paris" see Paris (disambiguation).


Paris is the capital and largest city of France. The city is built on an arc of the River Seine, and is thus divided into two parts: the Right Bank to the north and the smaller Left Bank in the south.

The city proper has about 2 million residents (1999 census: 2,147,857). The Greater Paris metropolitan area has about 11 million residents (1999 census: 11,174,743).


History



 

The Eiffel Tower



The historical nucleus of Paris is the Ile de la Cité, a small island largely occupied by the huge Palais de Justice and the Cathedral of Notre-Dame de Paris. It is connected with the smaller Ile Saint-Louis, occupied by elegant houses built in the 17th and 18th centuries. A major characteristic of Paris is its tree-lined quays along the Seine River, in particular, along the Left Bank with its open-air bookstalls, the historic bridges that span the river, and the vast tree-lined boulevards like the Champs-Élysées.

Paris was occupied by a Gallic tribe until the Romans arrived in 52 BC.  The invaders referred to the previous occupants the Parisii, but called their new city Lutetia, meaning "marshy place".  About fifty years later the city had spread to the left bank of the Seine, now known as the Latin Quarter, and had been renamed "Paris".

Roman rule was over by 508, when Clovis the Frank made the city the capital of the Merovingian dynasty of the Franks. Viking invasions during the 800s forced the Parisians to build a fortress on the Ile de la Cité. During one invasion Paris was sacked by Viking raiders, probably under Ragnar Lodbrok, who collected a huge ransom in exchange for leaving on March 27, 845. The first French king, Odo, was chosen in this period.

During the 11th century the city spread to the Right Bank. The 12th and 13th centuries, which included the reign of Philip II Augustus (1180-1223), are especially notable for the growth of the city. Main thoroughfares were paved, the first Louvre was built as a fortress, and several churches, including the Cathedral of Notre-Dame, were constructed or begun. Several schools on the Left Bank were organized into the Sorbonne, which counts Albertus Magnus and St. Thomas Aquinas among its early scholars. In the Middle Ages Paris prospered as a trading and intellectual centre, interrupted temporarily when the Black Death struck in the 14th century. Under the reign of King Louis XIV, the Sun King, from 1643 to 1715, the royal residence was moved from Paris to nearby Versailles.

The French Revolution began with the storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789. Many of the conflicts in the next few years were between Paris and the outlying rural areas of France.

In 1870 the Franco-Prussian War ended in a siege of Paris and the Paris Commune, which surrendered in 1871 after a winter of famine and bloodshed. The Eiffel Tower, the best-known landmark in Paris, was built in 1889 in a period of prosperity known as La Belle Époque ("The Age of Beauty).










View from the Montparnasse Tower (Tour Montparnasse) towards the Eiffel Tower. On the right Napoleon's tomb lies under the golden dome at Les Invalides. The towers of the office and entertainment centre La Defense line the horizon.

Larger version.







Historical population

1801: 547,800 inhabitants

1831: 714,000

1851: 1,053,000

1881: 2,240,000

1901: 2,661,000

1926: 2,871,000


Administration

The city of Paris is itself a département of France (Paris, 75), part of the Ile-de-France  région. Paris is subdivided into twenty numerically organised districts, the arrondissements. These districts are numbered in a spiral pattern with the 1er arrondissement at the center of the city.

Prior to 1964, département 75 was "Seine", which contained the city and the surrounding suburbs. The change in boundaries resulted in the creation of 3 new départements forming a ring around Paris, often called '\'la petite couronne (the little crown''): Hauts-de-Seine, Seine-Saint-Denis and Val-de-Marne.

Bertrand Delanoë is Paris Mayor since March 18, 2001.

Former mayors: Jacques Chirac, Jean Tiberi





Paris from the NASA Landsat 7 satellite. The River Seine winds its way through the center of the image. The gray and purple pixels are the urban areas. The patchwork of green, brown, tan and yellow surrounding the city is farmland.
The details are better seen in this
larger version






Geography

The altitude of Paris varies quite considerably with several prominent
hills :

Transport

Paris is served by two principal airports: Orly Airport, which is south of Paris, and the international airport Charles De Gaulle International Airport in Roissy, France.

Paris is densely covered by a metro system, the Métro. This interconnects with a high-speed regional network, the RER, and also the train network: commuter lines, national train lines, and the TGV (named Thalys or Eurostar for specific destinations).

The city is the hub of France's motorway network, and is surrounded by a large orbital road, the Peripherique. On/offramps of the Peripherique are called 'Portes', as they correspond to the city gates. Most of these 'Portes' have parking lot and a metro station, where non-residents are advised to leave cars. Traffic in Paris is notoriously slow and dangerous to car bodywork.





The Arc de Triomphe and the Champs Elysees.

Larger version




Places in Paris

Notable places in Paris:


Monuments and buildings





The Sacre Coeur, a Roman Catholic basilica.




Museums


Suburbs, streets and other areas





The Statue of Liberty copy on the river Seine in Paris, France. Given to the city in 1885, it faces west, towards the original Liberty in New York City.

Larger version






Night life


In the greater Paris region


Events




View over Paris and the Seine from the roof top café on La Samaritaine department store

Larger version




See also France


External links


Top     

Peru
(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
A new page based on the new template is being worked on at Peru/Temp, please make any changes you want to make on that page.


Alternate uses: see Peru (disambiguation) 


Peru is a country of western South America, bordering the south Pacific Ocean, between Chile and Ecuador.

The current president is Alejandro Toledo, leader of Peru Possible. This governing party is with 45 seats the largest in the 120 seat parliament.

The second and third largest parties are in opposition; respectively Partido Aprista Peruano (short: Apra, 28 seats) and Lourdes Flores Nano led Unidad Nacional (17 seats). 



República del Perú 



 

 coat of arms 

 (In Detail)



 National motto: Libertad y Orden 
 (Spanish; "none")

Official language	Spanish 

Capital	 Lima 

President	Alejandro Toledo Manrique 

Area
 - Total 
 - % water			Ranked 19th 
 1,285,220 km² 
 8.8% 

Population 
 - Total (2002) 
 - Density			Ranked 39th 
 27,949,639 
 22/km² 

Independence 

 - Date                         		From Spain

July 28, 1822


Currency		Sol 

Time zone		UTC -5 

National anthem	Somos libres, seámoslo siempre 

Internet TLD .PE 

Calling Code51 













Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Peru."
Top     

Pioneer plaque
(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
On board the unmanned spacecraft Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11 is a plaque with a pictoral message from mankind. The plaque shows the figures of a man and a woman along with several symbols that are designed to provide information about the origin of the spacecrafts. It serves as a kind of interstellar "message in a bottle". However it is very unlikely that it will be ever found. The mean time for the spacecraft to come within 30 astronomical units of a star is longer than the current age of the galaxy. 



The plaque on board the Pioneer spacecrafts.
Larger version

The Pioneer spacecraft were the first man-made objects to leave the solar system. The plaque is attached to the antenna support struts in a position that shields it from erosion by stellar dust.


History

The original idea, that the Pioneer spacecrafts should carry a message from mankind, was first mentioned by Eric Burgess when he visited the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena during the Mariner 9 mission. Together with Richard Hoagland he approached Dr. Carl Sagan who had lectured about communication with extraterrestrial intelligences at a conference in Crimea.

Dr Sagan was enthusiastic about the idea of sending a message with the Pioneer spacecraft. NASA agreed to the plan and gave him three weeks to prepare a message. Together with Dr Frank Drake he designed the plaque and the artwork was prepared by his wife Linda Salzman Sagan. In recent years, Hoagland (now best known for his studies of a purported portrait of a humanoid Martian face and an associated ruined city in the surrounding area), has attempted to take some credit for the actual design. This claim was strongly denied by both Sagan and Drake, who limit his input only to the idea that there should be some kind of message on the spacecraft.

The first plaque was launched with Pioneer 10 on March 2, 1972, and the second followed with Pioneer 11 on April 5, 1973. Both spacecraft left the solar system in the 1980s.


Physical properties





Material:
6061 T6 gold-anodized aluminium




Width:
229 mm (9 inches)




Height:
152 mm (6 inches)




Thickness:
1.27 mm (50/1000 inches)




Mean depth 
of engraving:		
0.381 mm (15/1000 inches)





Symbology


Hyperfine transition of neutral hydrogen



Hyperfine transition
 of hydrogen.

At the top left of the plate is a schematic representation of the hyperfine transition of hydrogen. Below this symbol is a small vertical line to represent the binary digit 1. This spin-flip transition of a hydrogen atom from electron state spin up to electron state spin down can specify a unit of length (wavelength, 21 cm) as well as a unit of time (frequency, 1420 MHz-1). Both units are used as measurements in the other symbols.



Figures of a woman and a man



A man and a woman.

On the right side of the plaque a man and a woman are shown in front of the spacecraft. Between the brackets that indicate the height of the woman, the binary representation of the number 8 can be seen. In units of the wavelength of the hyperfine transition of hydrogen this means 8 x 21 cm = 168 cm.

The right hand of the man is raised as a sign of good will. Although it is unlikely that this gesture is truly universal, it offers a way to show the opposable thumb and that the limbs can be moved.



Silhouette of the spacecraft



The Pioneer spacecraft.

Behind the figures of the human beings, the silhouette of the Pioneer spacecraft can be seen. It is displayed in the same scale so that the size of the human beings can be deduced from measuring the spacecraft.



Relative position of the Sun to the center of the Galaxy and 14 pulsars



14 pulsars with periods.

The radial pattern on the left of the plaque shows 15 lines emanating from the same origin. 14 of the lines have corresponding long binary numbers which stand for the periods of pulsars. Since these periods will change over time, the epoch of the launch can be calculated from these values.

The lengths of the lines show the relative distances of the pulsars to the sun. A tick mark at the end of each line gives the Z coordinate perpendicular to the galactic plane. 

If the plaque is found, only some of the pulsars may be visible from the location of its discovery. Showing the location with as many as 14 pulsars provides redundancy so that the location of the origin can be triangulated even if only some of the pulsars are recognized. 

The fifteenth line extends to the right behind the human figures. This line indicates the relative distance to the center of the Galaxy.



Solar system



The solar system.

At the bottom of the plaque is a schematic diagram of the solar system. A small picture of the spacecraft is shown, and the trajectory shows its way past Jupiter and out of the solar system. Saturn's rings could give a further hint to identifying the solar system.

The binary numbers next to the planets show the relative distance to the sun. The unit is 1/10th of Mercury's orbit.



Criticism of the plaque

Critics have argued that it may not be wise to show where the spacecraft originated, because malicious extraterrestrial intelligences could use the information to find and attack the Earth. Dr. Sagan opposes this view, because it is highly unlikely that the message will be found in a near epoch.

Another point of criticism is that the message is too anthropocentric and too hard to understand. Almost none of the human scientists that were shown the message was able to decode all of the message. It can be assumed that it will be even harder for extraterrestrial intelligences that do not share our common knowledge.

According to Sagan (Murmurs of Earth, 1978, New York, ISBN 0679744444), there were many negative reactions to the plaque due to the fact that the human beings were displayed naked. The Chicago Sun Times retouched its image to hide the genitals of the man and woman. The Los Angeles Times received "angry letters" from readers which accused NASA of wasting taxpayer money to send "obscenities" into space. 

Feminists complained that only the hand of the man was raised and not that of the woman. In response to this criticism, a similar image included on the Voyager Golden Record showed the woman with her hand raised.

See also Pioneer 10, Pioneer 11, Pioneer program.


External links


Top     

Python vs C Plus Plus example
(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
Here's a sample of how a C++ program would look when converted to Python. It's an implementation of a weird program described in this article (link to external pdf). Worth noting is that the C++ implementation presented here is over 50% smaller than the smallest program entered in the original "contest", so this comparison between C++ and Python is more than fair towards C++.

The main point here is to show how some of the more advanced C++ features map to Python code. The point is not what the code does (thus no comments), but how it does it. The example codes should be easily comparable, due to same variable and function names.


C++ code


  1. include 

  2. include 

  3. include 

  4. include 

  5. include 

  6. include 

  7. include 

  8. include 
    

using namespace std;

typedef multimap DicMap;
typedef vector Answers;

char toNumber(char letter) {

 static string letter2digit[] = { "E", "JNQ", "RWX", "DSY", "FT", "AM", "CIV", "BKU", "LOP", "GHZ" };
 for (int i=0; i<10; ++i)
   if (letter2digit[i].find(letter) != string::npos)
     return '0' + i;
 return '0';

}

void findMatch(const string& answer, const string& line, const DicMap& dic,

              bool allowNumber, Answers& answers) {
 if (line.empty()) {
   answers.push_back(answer);
   return;
 }

 for (size_t i = 1; i <= line.length(); ++i) {
   pair range = dic.equal_range(line.substr(0, i));
   for (DicMap::const_iterator e = range.first; e != range.second; ++e) {
     allowNumber = false;
     findMatch(answer + " " + e->second, line.substr(e->first.length(), line.length()), dic, true, answers);
   }
 }

 if (allowNumber)
   findMatch(answer + " " + line[0], line.substr(1, line.length()), dic, false, answers);

}

bool readDic(DicMap& dic) {

 ifstream in("dic.txt");
 if (!in) return false;
 string line;
 while (!in.eof()) {
   getline(in, line);

   string number = line;
   number.erase( remove_if(number.begin(), number.end(), not1(ptr_fun(isalpha))), number.end());
   transform(number.begin(), number.end(), number.begin(), toupper);
   transform(number.begin(), number.end(), number.begin(), toNumber);
   dic.insert(make_pair(number, line));
 }
 return true;

}

int main() {

 DicMap dic;
 if (!readDic(dic)) return 1;

 ifstream in("ph.txt");
 if (!in) return 1;
 string line;
 while (!in.eof()) {
   getline(in, line);
   string line_real = line;
   line_real.erase( remove_if(line_real.begin(), line_real.end(), not1(ptr_fun(isdigit))), line_real.end());
   Answers answers;
   findMatch("", line_real, dic, true, answers);
   for (Answers::iterator i = answers.begin(); i != answers.end(); ++i)
     cout << line << ":" << *i << endl;
 }

}



Python code


import string

letter2digit = "E", "JNQ", "RWX", "DSY", "FT", "AM", "CIV", "BKU", "LOP", "GHZ"

def toNumber(letter):

   for i in range(len(letter2digit)):
       if letter in letter2digit[i]:
           return chr(ord('0') + i)


def findMatch(answer, line, dic, allowNumber, answers):

   if line:
       answers.append(answer)
       return

   for i in range(1, len(line) + 1):
       if dic.has_key(line[:i]):
           allowNumber = False
           for e in dic[line[:i]]:
               findMatch(answer + ' ' + e, line[i:], dic, True, answers)
   
   if allowNumber:
       findMatch(answer + ' ' + line[0], line[1:], dic, False, answers)


def readDic():

   dic = {}
   for line in file('dic.txt'):
       line = line.strip()
       number = filter(lambda x: x in string.ascii_letters, line).upper()
       number = "".join(map(toNumber, number))
       dict[number] = dic.get(number, []) + [line]


def main():

   dic = readDic()
   for line in file('ph.txt'):
       line = line.strip()
       line_real = filter(lambda x: x in string.digits, line)
       answers = []
       findMatch("", line_real, dic, True, answers)
       for answer in answers:
           print line, ':', answer
   

main()


In Python sample, the "main"-block was moved into a function for convenience; It need not be there.
Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Python vs C Plus Plus example."
Top     

Severn Bridge
(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)








The Severn Bridge seen from the English side of the river.  Until 1996, the bridge carried the M4 motorway. On completion of the Second Severn Crossing the road was renamed M48.

Larger version






The Severn Bridge is nowadays generally regarded (at least by people in the south of England) as the main crossing point from England into Wales, despite the fact that the two countries share a land border.  Prior to 1966, when the first suspension bridge was built across the estuary of the River Severn, road traffic between Wales and the southern counties of England - including London - either had to travel via Gloucester or take a ferry, which ran, roughly along the line of the Severn Bridge, from Aust to Beachley.  The Anglo-Welsh poet, Harri Webb, wrote these lines:


Two lands at last connected

Across the waters wide,

And all the tolls collected

On the English side.


...a joke which was often repeated.  The toll is indeed collected on the English side, and only on vehicles travelling from England to Wales. This arrangement eliminates the need for a set of toll booths for each direction of travel.

The Severn Bridge is really two bridges in succession: travelling west a vehicle passes over the main Severn Bridge but then almost immediately over a second, cable-stayed bridge, of very different appearance, crossing the River Wye. Surprisingly, Welsh soil does not begin until after this second bridge has been crossed - both ends of the Severn Bridge itself are in England, one in the Unitary Authority of South Gloucestershire, the other in Gloucestershire.

Although the bridge made an enormous difference, it was soon a major bottleneck, and the burden of maintenance became unmanageable, so that by the 1990s a second bridge was necessary.





''The Second Severn Crossing, seen here from the English side of the river, carries the M4 motorway between England and Wales. The shipping channel can be seen in the middle of the river, between the two towers. 

Larger version





The Second Severn Crossing, opened in 1996, was built by a business consortium, and this time the tolls were collected on the Welsh side (but in the same direction).  The second bridge, which is of cable-stayed construction and hence, despite the apparent similarity, is not a suspension bridge, is wider and more resistant to high winds, and, because of its location, enjoys more traffic than the first bridge, which is still in general use. Its Welsh end is in Monmouthshire; its English end, in South Gloucestershire.


External link


Top     

Smuggling in literature
(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
This page lists works of fiction whose primary subject matter is smuggling:


Top     

Tourism in Greece
(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
Tourism > Tourism in Greece

Greece is a country of a rich cultural heritage. Democracy was invented in Athens, Greek culture is the mother of Roman culture and has very much influenced other civilisations. Famous places to visit include the coast of the Aegean Sea, the Peloponnesus with antique Olympia, the host of the next Olympic Games Athens with its Pantheon and the Acropolis, or Thessaloniki in the north. On the island of Crete are great beaches.
Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Tourism in Greece."
Top     

Tryst with Destiny
(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
Tryst with Destiny is a speech made by Jawaharlal Nehru, on the eve of Indian independance. The speech text follows:


Long years ago we made a tryst with destiny, and now the time comes when we shall redeem our pledge, not wholly or in full measure, but very substantially. At the stroke of the midnight hour, when the world sleeps,India will awake to life and freedom. A moment comes, which comes but rarely in history, when we step out from the old to the new, when an age ends, and when the soul of a nation, long supressed, finds utterance. It is fitting that at this solemn moment, we take the pledge of dedication to the service of India and her people and to the still larger cause of humanity.


At the dawn of history, India started on her unending quest, and trackless centuries are filled with her striving and grandeur of her success and failures. Through good and ill fortune alike, she has never lost sight of that quest forgotten the ideals which gave her strength. We end today a period of misfortunes and India discovers herself again. The achievement we celebrate today is but a step, an opening of opportunity to the greater triumphs and achievements that await us. Are we brave enough and wise enough to grasp this opportunity and accept the challenge of the future?


Freedom and power bring responsibility. The responsibility rests upon this Assembly, a sovereign body representing the sovereign people of India.Before the birth of freedom, we have endured all the pains of labour and our hearts are heavy with the memory of this sorrrow. Some of those pains continue even now. Nevertheless,the past is over and it is the future that beckons us now.


That future is not one of ease or resting but of incessant striving so that we may fulfil the pledges we have so often taken and the one we shall take today.The service of India means, the service of the millions who suffer.It means the ending of poverty and ignorance and poverty and disease and inequality of opportunity. The ambition of the greatest man of our generation has been to wipe every tear from every eye. That may be beyond us, but as long as there are tears and suffering, so long our work will not be over


And so we have to labour and to work, and to work hard, to give reality to our dreams. Those dreams are for India, but they are also for the world, for all the nations and peoples are too closely knit together today for any one of them to imagine that it can live apart. Peace is said to be indivisble, so is freedom, so is prosperity now, and also is disaster in this one world that can no longer be split into isolated fragments.
Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Tryst with Destiny."
Top     

Vascular plant
(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)







Vascular Plants






Scientific classification





Kingdom:     Plantae          


Subkingdom:Tracheobionta




Divisions




  • Non-seed-bearing plants

    • Equisetophyta

    • Lycophyta

    • Psilophyta

    • Pterophyta

  • Superdivision Spermatophyta

    • Coniferophyta

    • Cycadophyta

    • Ginkgophyta

    • Gnetophyta

    • Magnoliophyta




The Subkingdom Tracheobionta encompasses those plants in the Kingdom Plantae that have specialized cells for conducting water and sap within their tissues. Thus, the term vascular plants — vascular meaning  a network of conducting vessels — refers to the grouping inclusive of flowering plants, conifers and allies (former gymnosperms), and ferns, but not mosses or more "primitive" plants collectively called the nonvascular plants.

These plants are differentiated from the nonvascular plants in two  important ways:  

  1.  Vascular plants have water-carrying structures, termed tracheids, in their tissues, enabling the plants to evolve larger and more elaborate structures, while non-vascular plants lack these. 

  2.  In vascular plants, the principal generation phase is the sporophyte, which is diploid with two sets of chromosomes per cell. In non-vascular plants, the principal generation phase is often the gametophyte, which is haploid with one set of chromosomes per cell.  See also alternation of generations.
    

Vascular plants used to be grouped in the Division Tracheophyta. While certainly a monophyletic group, tracheophytes just aren't closely related enough to warrant a single division for all of them.


Divisions


See also


Top     

Western Armenian verb table
(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
The following is an Western Armenian verb table.  The Eastern Armenian verb table can be found here:


Conjugations


Affirmative/Interrogative


Type I





 
Indicative

Present
Imperfect
Preterite
Future



1sg

2sg

3sg

1pl

2pl

3pl


yes

tun

an

menk'

tuk'

anonk'


gë sirem

gë sires

gë sirê

gë sirenk'

gë sirêk'

gë siren


gë sirêi

gë sirêir

gë sirêr

gë sirêink'

gë sirêik'

gë sirêin


sirec'i

sirec'ir

sirec'

sirec'ink'

sirec'ik'

sirec'in


bidi sirem

bidi sires

bidi sirê

bidi sirenk'

bidi sirêk'

bidi siren



 



 
Perfect
Pluperfect



1sg

2sg

3sg

1pl

2pl

3pl


siradz em

siradz es

siradz ê

siradz enk'

siradz êk'

siradz en


siradz êi

siradz êir

siradz êr

siradz êink'

siradz êik'

siradz êin



 



 
Optative

Non-Past
Past
Conditional

Non-Past



1sg

2sg

3sg

1pl

2pl

3pl


sirem

sires

sirê

sirenk'

sirêk'

siren


sirêi

sirêir

sirêr

sirêink'

sirêik'

sirêin


bidi sirêi

bidi sirêir

bidi sirêr

bidi sirêink'

bidi sirêik'

bidi sirêin



 



 
Jussive

Non-Past
Past
Imperative

 



1sg

2sg

3sg

1pl

2pl

3pl


sirelu yem

sirelu yes

sirelu ê

sirelu yenk'

sirelu êk'

sirelu yen


sirelu êi

sirelu êir

sirelu êr

sirelu êink'

sirelu êik'

sirelu êin


 

sirê!

 

sirenk'!

sirec'êk'!

 



 



Infinitive

Gerund

Past Act. Participle

Past Pass. Participle

Future Participle I

Future Participle II


sirel (to love)

sirogh

sirer

siradz

sirelu

sirelik'




Type II





 
Indicative

Present
Imperfect
Preterite
Future



1sg

2sg

3sg

1pl

2pl

3pl


yes

tun

an

menk'

tuk'

anonk'


gë khôsim

gë khôsis

gë khôsi

gë khôsink'

gë khôsik'

gë khôsin


gë khôsêi

gë khôsêir

gë khôsêr

gë khôsêink'

gë khôsêik'

gë khôsêin


*khôsec'ay

khôsec'ar

*khôsec'au

khôsec'ank'

khôsec'ak'

khôsec'an


bidi khôsim

bidi khôsis

bidi khôsi

bidi khôsink'

bidi khôsik'

bidi khôsin



 



 
Perfect
Pluperfect



1sg

2sg

3sg

1pl

2pl

3pl


khôsadz em

khôsadz es

khôsadz ê

khôsadz enk'

khôsadz ek'

khôsadz en


khôsadz êi

khôsadz êir

khôsadz êr

khôsadz êink'

khôsadz êik'

khôsadz êin



 



 
Optative

Non-Past
Past
Conditional

Non-Past



1sg

2sg

3sg

1pl

2pl

3pl


khôsim

khôsis

khôsi

khôsink'

khôsik'

khôsin


khôsêi

khôsêir

khôsêr

khôsêink'

khôsêik'

khôsêin


bidi khôsêi

bidi khôsêir

bidi khôsêr

bidi khôsêink'

bidi khôsêik'

bidi khôsêin



 



 
Jussive

Non-Past
Past
Imperative

 



1sg

2sg

3sg

1pl

2pl

3pl


khôsilu yem

khôsilu yes

khôsilu ê

khôsilu yenk'

khôsilu êk'

khôsilu yen


khôsilu êi

khôsilu êir

khôsilu êr

khôsilu êink'

khôsilu êik'

khôsilu êin


 

khôsê!

 

khôsink'!

khôsêc'êk'!

 



 



Infinitive

Gerund

Past Act. Participle

Past Pass. Participle

Future Participle I

Future Participle II


khôsil (to speak)

khôsogh

khôser

khôsadz

khôsilu

khôsilik'



Note: the forms khôsec'ay and khôsec'au are pronounced /khôsec'a/ and /khôsec'av/, respectively.


Type III





 
Indicative

Present
Imperfect
Preterite
Future



1sg

2sg

3sg

1pl

2pl

3pl


yes

tun

an

menk'

tuk'

anonk'


gë gartam

gë gartas

*gë gartay

gë gartank'

gë gartak'

gë gartan


gë gartayi

gë gartayir

gë gartar

gë gartayink'

gë gartayik'

gë gartayin


gartac'i

gartac'ir

gartac'

gartac'ink'

gartac'ik'

gartac'in


bidi gartam

bidi gartas

bidi gartay

bidi gartank'

bidi gartak'

bidi gartan



 



 
Perfect
Pluperfect



1sg

2sg

3sg

1pl

2pl

3pl


gartac'adz em

gartac'adz es

gartac'adz ê

gartac'adz enk'

gartac'adz ek'

gartac'adz en


gartac'adz êi

gartac'adz êir

gartac'adz êr

gartac'adz êink'

gartac'adz êik'

gartac'adz êin



 



 
Optative

Non-Past
Past
Conditional

Non-Past



1sg

2sg

3sg

1pl

2pl

3pl


gartam

gartas

*gartay

gartank'

gartak'

gartan


gartayi

gartayir

gartar

gartayink'

gartayik'

gartayin


bidi gartayi

bidi gartayir

bidi gartar

bidi gartayink'

bidi gartayik'

bidi gartayin



 



 
Jussive

Non-Past
Past
Imperative

 



1sg

2sg

3sg

1pl

2pl

3pl


gartalu yem

gartalu yes

gartalu ê

gartalu yenk'

gartalu êk'

gartalu yen


gartalu êi

gartalu êir

gartalu êr

gartalu êink'

gartalu êik'

gartalu êin


 

garta!

 

gartank'!

gartac'êk'!

 



 



Infinitive

Gerund

Past Act. Participle

Past Pass. Participle

Future Participle I

Future Participle II


gartal (to read)

gartac'ogh

gartac'er

gartac'adz

gartalu

gartalik'




Note: the form gartay is pronounced /garta/.


Negative

Note: the formation of the negative is the same for all conjugations. The examples below are based on the first conjugation. 





 
Indicative

Present
Imperfect
Preterite
Future



1sg

2sg

3sg

1pl

2pl

3pl


yes

tun

an

menk'

tuk'

anonk'


ch'em sirer

ch'es sirer

ch'ê sirer

ch'enk' sirer

ch'êk' sirer

ch'en sirer


ch'êi sirer

ch'êir sirer

ch'êr sirer

ch'êink' sirer

ch'êik' sirer

ch'êin sirer


ch'sirec'i

ch'sirec'ir

ch'sirec'

ch'sirec'ink'

ch'sirec'ik'

ch'sirec'in


bidi ch'sirem

bidi ch'sires

bidi ch'sirê

bidi ch'sirenk'

bidi ch'sirêk'

bidi ch'siren



 



 
Perfect
Pluperfect



1sg

2sg

3sg

1pl

2pl

3pl


ch'em siradz

ch'es siradz

ch'ê siradz

ch'enk' siradz

ch'êk' siradz

ch'en siradz


ch'êi siradz

ch'êir siradz

ch'êr siradz

ch'êink' siradz

ch'êik' siradz

ch'êin siradz



 



 
Optative

Non-Past
Past
Conditional

Non-Past



1sg

2sg

3sg

1pl

2pl

3pl


ch'sirem

ch'sires

ch'sirê

ch'sirenk'

ch'sirêk'

ch'siren


ch'sirêi

ch'sirêir

ch'sirêr

ch'sirêink'

ch'sirêik'

ch'sirêin


bidi ch'sirêi

bidi ch'sirêir

bidi ch'sirêr

bidi ch'sirêink'

bidi ch'sirêik'

bidi ch'sirêin



 



 
Jussive

Non-Past
Past
Imperative

 



1sg

2sg

3sg

1pl

2pl

3pl


ch'em sirelu

ch'es sirelu

ch'ê sirelu

ch'enk' sirelu

ch'êk' sirelu

ch'en sirelu


ch'êi sirelu

ch'êir sirelu

ch'êr sirelu

ch'êink' sirelu

ch'êik' sirelu

ch'êin sirelu


 

mi sirer!

 

 

mi sirêk'!

 



 



Infinitive

Gerund

Past Act. Participle

Past Pass. Participle

Future Participle I

Future Participle II


ch'sirel (to not love)

ch'sirogh

ch'sirer

ch'siradz

ch'sirelu

ch'sirelik'


Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Western Armenian verb table."
Top     

York (disambiguation)
(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
York is the name of several places:


There are also York Beach  and York Harbor, both in the State of Maine, and various places named Yorktown and Yorkville.

By far the best known places with York in their name are the city and state of New York, in the United States of America, named for the Duke of York at the time of their establishment, who later became known as King James II of England.

Regions with York in their name include

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "York (disambiguation)."
Top     
Synonyms: Here
Synonyms: here(p) (adj), hither (adv). (additional references)
Antonym: there (adv). (additional references)
Top     
Synonyms within Context: Here
ContextSynonyms within Context (source: adapted from Roget's Thesaurus).
Situation
Adverb: in situ, in loco; here and there, passim; hereabouts, thereabouts, whereabouts; in place, here, there.
Source: adapted from Roget's Thesaurus.
Top     
Crosswords: Here
English words defined with "here": here and now, here and there. (references)
Specialty definitions using "here": Bend Over, Here It Comes Again ♦ HERE AND THEREIAN, here document ♦ I see no X here. ♦ Look at here. (references)
Etymologies containing "here": marque. (references)
Non-English Usage: "Here" is also a word in the following languages with English translations in parentheses.
Breton (October), Hungarian (lounger, stone, testicle), Latin (yesterday).
Top     
Modern Usage: Here
DomainUsage
Screenplays
I eat breakfast 300 yards from 4000 Cubans who are trained to kill me, so don't think you can come down here, flash a badge, and make me nervous (A Few Good Men; writing credit: Aaron Sorkin)
It was just like this one time here (American Pie 2; writing credit: Adam Herz; David H. Steinberg)
Please be here for me (Batman & Robin; writing credit: Akiva Goldsman)
I'd like to share a revelation that I've had, during my time here. It came to me when I tried to classify your species (The Matrix; writing credit: Andy Wachowski and Larry Wachowski.)
If I leave you here, you die. Or you can be young always, my friend, as we are now, but you must tell me: will you come or no (Interview with the Vampire: The Vampire Chronicles; writing credit: Anne Rice)
Lyrics
Here I am so alone (Back Here; performing artist: BBMak)
But I turn around and you're standing here (Nobody's Supposed To Be Here (Dance Mix); performing artist: Deborah Cox)
I didn't hear you leave, I wonder how am I still here, (Here With Me; performing artist: Dido)
I will be right here waiting for you (Right Here Waiting; performing artist: Richard Marx)
I'm here without you baby (Here Without You; performing artist: The Doors)
Clever
Don't go around saying the world owes you a living. The world owes you nothing. It was here first. (references; author: Mark Twain)
Soul food served here. (references; author: unknown)
Abandon all hope, all ye who enter here. (references; author: unknown)
I wished the buck stopped here, as I could use a few. (references; author: unknown)
Sure, you may not like working here, but we pay your rent. (references; author: unknown)
Tongue Twisters
Are Roland and Sally rallying here in their lorry? (references; author: unknown)
Ere her ear hears her err, here ears err here. (references; author: unknown)
Movie/TV Titles
Alice Doesn't Live Here Anymore (1974)
I'm a Stranger Here Myself (1974)
Wish You Were Here...? (1974)
We're Here to Stay (1974)
Here We Go Again (1973)
Song Titles
Your State's Name Here (performing artist: Lou and Peter Berryman)
Here We Are (performing artist: Gloria Estefan)
Here Is Gone (performing artist: Goo Goo Dolls)
Wish You Were Here (performing artist: Incubus)
Here Comes The Hotstepper (performing artist: Ini Kamoze)
Source: compiled by the editor from various references; see credits.
Top     
Commercial Usage: Here
DomainTitle
Books
  • You're Not from Around Here, Are You: A Lesbian in Small-Town America (Living Out: Gay and Lesbian Autobiographies) (reference)
  • I'm a Stranger Here Myself: Notes on Returning to America After 20 Years Away (reference)
  • Dave Barry Slept Here (reference)
  • Generation Ecch!/the Backlash Starts Here (reference)
  • From Here, You Can't See Paris: Seasons of a French Village and Its Restaurant (reference)
    (more book examples)
  
Periodicals
  
Theater & Movies
  • Live Dead - The Grateful Dead in Concert (Downhill from Here, Ticket to New Year's, View from the Vault) (reference)
  • Pat Metheny Group - We Live Here (reference)
  • Blue's Clues - Blue's Big News - The Baby's Here! (reference)
  • Here Comes Clifford (reference)
    (more DVD examples; more video examples)
  
Music
  
High Tech
  
Consumer Goods
Source: compiled by the editor from various references; see credits.
Top     
Image Slideshow: Here
Photos:
Here
More pictures...
Illustrations:
Here
More pictures...
Computer Images:
Here
More pictures...
Top     
Photo Album: Here
ThumbnailDescription & CreditThumbnailDescription & Credit
Pictured here is a computer laboratory with rows of machinery. This technology aids in cancer research. Without it, it would be impossible to store and retrieve the vast amounts of information needed for detailed research projects. Credit: Linda Bartlett (photographer).
Shown is an apparatus that mixes drugs for combination chemotherapy. At times, various combinations of as many as fifteen drugs are used in the treatment of certain cancers. Here is shown a combination of drugs to treat breast cancer. In some photos, a scientist or his hands may be seen making adjustments to the equipment. Credit: Linda Bartlett (photographer).
Pathognomonic findings seen here include acanthosis, broadening and elongation of the rete ridges, intracellular and intercellular edema of the rete cells, and migration of the inflammatory cells through the epidermis; H&E stain; magnification 40X. Credit: CDC.
Buboes are due to the swelling of lymph nodes after they've absorbed infective material as seen here in a case of plague. Credit: CDC.
Here is an 8D graph -- a 3D array of time-dependent 3D vectors, using color to show a pressure wave propagating through the moving vectors.
Here is a Hubble telescope view of a turbulent cauldron of star birth called N159, which is ... Credit: NASA.
Here are Hubble telescope views of the rapidly fading visible-light fireball from the most ... Credit: NASA.
Hubble Space Telescope (HST) during the STS 61 flightThe new solar arrays are seen here from the aft flight deck, backlit against the black background of space. Credit: NASA.
The Mayn River, seen here with what is thought to be a portion of the Anadyr River, flows through the far northeastern corner of Siberia. Credit: NASA.
Namib-Naukluft National Park is an ecological preserve in Namibia's vast Namib Desert. Coastal winds create the tallest sand dunes in the world here, with some dunes reaching 980 feet (300 meters) in height. Credit: NASA.
Source: pictures compiled by the editor from various references; see picture credits.
Top     
Digital Photo Gallery: Here
 
"Here Comes the Seven Train" by Lewis Long
Commentary: "Shot of the 7 train coming by on 82nd Street in Queens, NY."		"Skippy was here." by Piers Warmers
Commentary: "Kangaroo footprints during drought. NSW, Australia."

Source: photographs selected by the editor, with permission from the photographers.
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Familiar Quotations: Here
AuthorQuotation
(Decimus Junius Juvenalis) Juvenal
Here we all live in a state of ambitious poverty.
Dante (Alighieri)
Abandon all hope, you who enter here!
Dante Alighieri
All hope abandon, ye who enter here!
Necessity brings him [Dante] here, not pleasure.
Edmund Spenser
That here on earth is no sure happiness.
Emile Zola
I am an artist… I am here to live out loud.
John Locke
No man's knowledge here can go beyond his experience.
Martin Luther
Here I stand; I can do no other. God help me. Amen!
Theocritus
A great love goes here with a little gift.
Source: compiled by the editor from various references.
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Historic Usage: Here
AuthorDateQuotation
John Locke
1690
The examples of particular injustice, or oppression of here and there an unfortunate man, moves them not. (Second Treatise of Government)
US Declaration of Independence
1776
We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. (reference)
Marbury v. Madison
1803
Here the language of the constitution is addressed especially to the courts. (reference)
Communist Manifesto
1848
Here and there the contest breaks out into riots. (reference)
Abraham Lincoln
1863
The world will  little note nor long remember what we say here, but it can never  forget what they did here. (The Gettysburg Address)
Winston S. Churchill
1946
There is nothing here but what you see. ("Iron Curtain" Speech)
Brown v. Board of Education
1954
Here, unlike Sweatt v. Painter, there are findings below that the Negro and white schools involved have been equalized, or are being equalized, with respect to buildings, curricula, qualifications and salaries of teachers, and other "tangible" factors. (reference)
John F. Kennedy
1961
Finally, whether you are citizens of America or citizens of the world, ask of us here the same high standards of strength and sacrifice which we ask of you. (reference)
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.
1963
So we have come here today to dramatize an appalling condition. (Delivered on the steps at the Lincoln Memorial in Washington D.C. on August 28, 1934)
Roe v. Wade
1973
State criminal abortion laws, like those involved here, that except from criminality only a life-saving procedure on the mother's behalf without regard to the stage of her pregnancy and other interests involved violate the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, which protects against state action the right to privacy, including a woman's qualified right to terminate her pregnancy. (reference)
Source: compiled by the editor from various references.
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Use in Literature: Here
TitleAuthorQuote
Emma
Austen, Jane
You need not be afraid of unwholesome preserves here.
Sylvie and Bruno
Carroll, Lewis
Here I ventured on a question
A Christmas Carol
Dickens, Charles
I wish I had him here.
Scarlet Letter
Hawthorne, Nathaniel
Ghosts might enter here without affrighting us.
Les Miserables
Hugo, Victor
There is evidently a mistake here.
Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man
Joyce, James
It was October because it was before I came up here to join the matriculation class
King Richard III
Shakespeare, William
Here, my good lord
Grapes of Wrath
Steinbeck, John
Got no water here.
Gulliver's Travels
Swift, Jonathan
In the mean time I here conclude the second part of my unfortunate voyages
Walden
Thoreau, Henry David
There are no larger fields than these, no worthier games than may here be played
Source: compiled by the editor from various references.
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Non-Fiction Usage: Here
SubjectTopicQuote
Health
Here is a special photograph of the rabies virus. (references)
The methods mentioned here seem to be equally helpful. (references)
Here are some points you may want to discuss with your doctor. (references)
Business
Internet broadcasting itself has been here for sometime. (references)
The gaps highlighted here are simply those that are large. (references)
Popular cruises sold here are those which begin from Miami. (references)
Civil Liberties
Nigeria
During the year, the NBC also prevented the commissioning of the Here and There television station in Oyo State, ruling that the original license had expired. (references)
Discrimination
Namibia
During a March 19 speech at the University of Namibia, President Nujoma announced that "the Republic of Namibia does not allow homosexuality or lesbianism here. (references)
Economic History
Colombia
Here too, fighting continues. (references)
Minorities
Czech Republic
There is a Romani journalism course at the College of Publicity, here has been a Department of Romani Language Studies at Charles University in Prague since 1991, and additional university-level Romani language study program exist in Usti nad Labem and Brno. (references)
Political Economy
HAITI
Most manufactured goods sold here are imported. (references)
HUNGARY
These goods appear to be entering Hungary from other countries rather than being manufactured here. (references)
Trade
Burma
The U.S. EXIM bank does not loan to Burma nor does OPIC operate here. (references)
Panama
There is no legal limitation in Panama on participation in ISO-9000 by firms doing business here. (references)
Hong Kong
The list of Hong Kong based banks with correspondent U.S. banking arrangements is too large to include here. (references)
Travel
Israel
Email addresses and websires are useful here and should be included with your contact information. (references)
South Africa
Shopping here is similar to that in the United States, with large and very modern shopping centers. (references)
Bahrain
Nevertheless, the atmosphere here is generally more time-sensitive and "business-like" than in other countries of the region. (references)
Lexicography
Devil's Dictionary
FOLLY, n.  That "gift and faculty divine" whose creative and controlling energy inspires Man's mind, guides his actions and adorns his life. Folly! although Erasmus praised thee once In a thick volume, and all authors known, If not thy glory yet thy power have shown, Deign to take homage from thy son who hunts Through all thy maze his brothers, fool and dunce, To mend their lives and to sustain his own, However feebly be his arrows thrown, Howe'er each hide the flying weapons blunts. All-Father Folly! be it mine to raise, With lusty lung, here on his western strand With all thine offspring thronged from every land, Thyself inspiring me, the song of praise. And if too weak, I'll hire, to help me bawl, Dick Watson Gilder, gravest of us all. Aramis Loto Frope
Source: compiled by the editor from ICON Group International, Inc.; see credits.
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Spoken Usage: Here
SpeakerPhrase(s)
Bob Barker
You see this young guy over here and he has about three lines and it's Robert Mitchum. And I love it.
Dan Rather
This is CBS News continuing live coverage of the apparent terrorist attacks today here in New York City and in Washington, D.C.
Dennis Miller
I'll just blow me here.
Don Imus
That was a fascinating first half-hour you had. And I was saying to the guys here in the studio, I could have watched it for the entire hour.
James Van Praagh
Oh, I think we've been here many, many times. I think we come back and learn lessons. I think this is our school room. We come back and learn various things.
Jerry Lewis
We don't need a wind screen on that God-damn mic. We're going to change that to that, and then we click it here, and we're as good as new. And that's for later.
Mark Geragos
I am here in the California system and I'll tell you, you don't see this kind of stuff happen if it's somebody else. You just don't.
Rush Limbaugh
We've been around here for centuries, and we still can barely muster working toilets.
Source: compiled by the editor from various references; see credits.
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Speeches: Here
SpeakerTermPhrase(s)
Thomas Jefferson
1801-1809To avoid this waste of our resources it is proposed to add to our navy-yard here a dock within which our present vessels may be laid up dry and under cover from the sun.
Abraham Lincoln
1861-1865The brave men, living and dead who struggled here have consecrated it far above our poor power to add or detract.
John F. Kennedy
1961-1963For if we cannot fulfill our own ideals here, we cannot expect others to accept them.
Lyndon B. Johnson
1963-1969Let me speak now about some matters here at home.
Richard Nixon
1969-1974As I recall the high hopes for America with which we began this second term, I feel a great sadness that I will not be here in this office working on your behalf to achieve those hopes in the next two and a half years.
Gerald Ford
1974-1977Life will be a little better here for my children than for me.
Ronald Reagan
1981-1989All of you have made our day, just by being here.
George Bush
1989-1993Assistance can be shown here, and will be long remembered.
Bill Clinton
1993-2001What we do here is really beginning to change lives.
George W. Bush
2001-2005Good jobs begin with good schools, and here we've made a fine start.
Source: compiled by the editor from various references.
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Usage Frequency: Here
"Here" is generally used as an adverb (general) -- approximately 99.99% of the time. "Here" is used about 69,878 times out of a sample of 100 million words spoken or written in English. Its rank is based on over 700,000 words used in the English language. Some parts-of-speech are not covered due to the samples used by the British National Corpus. (note: percents less than one-hundredth of one percent have been omitted)
Parts of SpeechPercentUsage per
100 Million Words		Rank in English
Adverb (general)99.99%69,873123 
                    Total100.00%69,878N/A
Source: compiled by the editor from several corpora; see credits.
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Derived & Related Names: Here
The following table summarizes names derived from the word "here".
 
NameGenderLanguageMeaning
ChorazinN/ABiblical
Here is a mystery
GershomN/ABiblical
A stranger here
GershonN/ABiblical
A stranger here
ShamgarN/ABiblical
He is here a stranger
Source: compiled by the editor from various references.
 
Top     
Expressions: Here
Expressions using "here": ad here ♦ along here ♦ around here ♦ as far as here ♦ be here on business ♦ bring here ♦ close by here ♦ come here ♦ come here all of you! ♦ down here ♦ far from here ♦ from here ♦ get it here ♦ here and now ♦ here and now! ♦ here and there ♦ here are my papers ♦ here below ♦ here comes this terror! ♦ here document ♦ here goes! ♦ here i am! ♦ here is ♦ here is a pretty mess ♦ here is my brother ♦ here is the receipt ♦ here is! ♦ here it is ♦ here it is! ♦ here there and everywhere ♦ here they come ♦ here they come! ♦ here we are! ♦ here we go up! ♦ here you are at last! ♦ here you are! ♦ here you go again! ♦ his word goes here ♦ how far from here to the sea? ♦ i am here on vacation ♦ i live here ♦ in here ♦ it is here ♦ It is neither here nor there ♦ it should be here ♦ it's far from here ♦ it's pitch dark here ♦ just about here ♦ just here ♦ look up to here ♦ make a journey here ♦ near here ♦ neither here nor there ♦ on here ♦ over here ♦ right here ♦ same here ♦ send here ♦ something is wrong here ♦ sometimes here sometimes there ♦ somewhere about here ♦ somewhere along here ♦ that is neither here nor there ♦ the matter will not rest here ♦ they are here ♦ through here ♦ up here ♦ up to here ♦ you can't smoke here ♦ you must get off here. Additional references.
Hyphenated Usage
Beginning with "here": here-all, here-and-now, Here-at, here-different, here-elements, here-found, here-no, here-the, here-today, here-under.
Ending with "here": Alan-is-not-here, don't-answer-back-i'm-in-charge-here, don't-come-here, legislation-here, not-invented-here, oh-it-will-never-happen-here, what-are-you-doing-here, what-on-earth-are-you-doing-here, wish-you-were-here.
Containing "here": look-here-this-sort-of-thing-won't-do-at-all-you-know.
Source: compiled by the editor from various references; see credits.
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Frequency of Internet Keywords: Here
The following statistics estimate the number of searches per day across the major English-language search engines as identified by various trade publications. Hyperlinks lead to commercial use of the expression at Amazon.com.
 
ExpressionFrequency
per Day		ExpressionFrequency
per Day
address enter here keyword web
2,301
here night
97
comes here pain smackdown wwe
709
here lyrics right waiting
97
comes here pain smackdown
415
wish you were here lyrics
96
here
400
faith here hill lyrics re single still version
96
hot in here
361
getting here hot in its
94
wish you were here
216
type keyword or web address here
91
click here
197
here your sign
91
5 comes here pain smackdown wwe
195
i will be here
87
5 comes here pain smackdown
190
here i am to worship lyrics
85
search here
169
here right search
82
your keyword here
166
from here to eternity
81
here i am to worship
153
am here i lord
79
right here waiting
151
here lyrics night
79
here i m still
134
here i lyrics will
79
here i am
127
here in up
76
buy here pay here
120
here host
75
enter keyword here
117
enter search here
75
here is the porn
113
pink floyd wish you were here
72
here comes the bride
109
floyd here lyrics pink were wish
68
be here now
105
kilroy was here
65
Source: compiled by the editor from various references; see credits.
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Modern Translation: Here
Language Translations for "here"; alternative meanings/domain in parentheses.
Afrikaans
  
hierheen (hither, this way), hier. (various references)
   
Albanian
  
këtu (herein, hither, there, therein). (various references)
   
Arabic 
  
‏هنا (herein, hither, thither), ‏ها هو أخي, ‏تعال هنا, ‏الحياة الحاضرة, ‏الآن (at present, inasmuch, just now, now, present, presently, yet), ‏أسكن هنا. (various references)
   
Basque
  
hemen. (various references)
   
Breton
  
amañ. (various references)
   
Bulgarian 
  
тук (herein, round, there), това място, този свят, в този момент, в тази посока, насам (along, downwards, hither, over, round, this way, thither, thitherwards), ето (lo, so there), ей (ahoy, hallo, hi, hollo, hoy), по този въпрос (there), по този пункт (there). (various references)
   
Catalan
  
aquí. (various references)
   
Chinese 
  
這裡 , 這邊  (this side), 這兒 , 这里. (various references)
   
Croatian
  
tu, ovdje. (various references)
   
Czech
  
tady (hereabouts, in this place, over here, there), tu (in this place). (various references)
   
Danish
  
her, hid (hither, this way), herhen (hither, this way). (various references)
   
Dutch
  
hier (behold, here are, here is, here you are, hither, look, this, this way), hierheen (hither, this way). (various references)
   
Esperanto
  
tien ĉi (hither, this way), tie ĉi, ĉi tien (hither, this way), ĉi tie. (various references)
   
Estonian
  
siin (in this). (various references)
   
Faeroese
  
higar (hither, this way), her. (various references)
   
Finnish
  
täällä (in this place). (various references)
   
Flemish
  
hier. (various references)
   
French
  
ici (over here). (various references)
   
French Canadian
  
ici. (various references)
   
Frisian
  
hjirre, hjir. (various references)
   
Galician
  
aquí. (various references)
   
German
  
hier (behold, here are, here is, here you are, herein, in this country, locally, look, men, over here), hierhin (hither, that way, there, this way, thither, yonder), hierher (hither, this way), da (as, at that, at that place, because, behold, for, for the reason that, here are, here is, here you are, in, inasmuch as, look, over there, since, so, that, then, there, to that, yon, yonder). (various references)
   
Greek 
  
εδώ (hither). (various references)
   
Guarani
  
ko'ápe, ápe. (various references)
   
Haitian Creole
  
la (the), isit. (various references)
   
Hawaiian
  
këtu. (various references)
   
Hebrew 
  
כאן (in this case, now). (various references)
   
Hungarian
  
itt (down here, herein, over here), ide (hither). (various references)
   
Icelandic
  
hér. (various references)
   
Indonesian
  
di sini. (various references)
   
Irish
  
seo (these, this, This is), anseo. (various references)
   
Italian
  
qui (hither, this way, where), qua (hither, over here, this way, thisway), ecco (here are, here is, so, so there, there, yonder). (various references)
   
Japanese Kanji 
  
此処  (this place), 当地  (this place), こみ上げる  (an end point, even though things may appear this way, hey!, nothing special, to experience a welling up of feelings or sensations, to feel nauseous, to fill, with this). (various references)
   
Japanese Katakana 
  
ここ (cry of a baby at its birth, each house, every house, individual, one by one, separate, this place), これで  (with this), とうち (equal value, equivalence, governing, government, placing nonessentials before essentials, reign, rule, this place, turning upside down). (various references)
   
Korean 
  
여기서. (various references)
   
Lombard
  
chi ch'inscì. (various references)
   
Luxembourgish
  
hei. (various references)
   
Malagasy
  
eto, ato. (various references)
   
Manx
  
aynshoh, ayns shoh (herein). (various references)
   
Norwegian
  
her. (various references)
   
Occitan
  
aicí. (various references)
   
Papiamen
  
aki (hither, this way). (various references)
   
Pig Latin
  
erehay.(various references)
   
Polish
  
tu. (various references)
   
Portuguese
  
aqui (herein, hither), cá (hither, this way, up). (various references)
   
Portuguese Brazilian
  
aqui. (various references)
   
Quechua
  
kaypi. (various references)
   
Romanian
  
aici (heel, herein, hither, there, to heel). (various references)
   
Russian 
  
здесь (herein, therein). (various references)
   
Scottish
  
so (from this place, hence, here : as an so, these : an so), seo (behold, here are, here is, here you are, look, these, this, this here, this is), an seo. (various references)
   
Serbo-Croatian
  
tu, ovde (in here, over here), ovamo (hither), amo (hither). (various references)
   
Slovene
  
tukaj, tu. (various references)
   
Somali
  
halkan. (various references)
   
Sotho
  
moo (there), mona. (various references)
   
Spanish
  
aquí (hither, lo), acá (hither, over here, thisway). (various references)
   
Sranan
  
dyaso, dya so. (various references)
   
Swahili
  
hapa, humu, huku. (various references)
   
Swedish
  
hit (hit, hit song, hither, this way), här (army, round). (various references)
   
Tagalog
  
rito, díto. (various references)
   
Tahitian
  
'onei. (various references)
   
Thai
  
ที่นี่. (various references)
   
Turkish
  
burada (adsum, in this place, in this quarter), buraya (hither). (various references)
   
Turkmen 
  
юu taяda, юu яerde, зendan (occasionally, sometimes), bдrik, bдri (since, this side of). (various references)
   
Ukrainian
  
сюди (hither, this way), тут (herein, therein), гей (gay, heigh, hey, hoy), ось (behold, lo, there). (various references)
   
Vietnamese 
  
nơi đây, không quan trọng (insignificant, jerkwater, minor, trifling, unimportant), chốn này, bắt đầu nhé!  ở khắp mọi nơi, ở đây (herein, hither), đây (hither). (various references)
   
Welsh
  
yma. (various references)
   
Wolof
  
fii, fi. (various references)
   
Xhosa
  
apha. (various references)
   
Yucatec
  
waye', te'la', te' (there). (various references)
   
Zulu
  
lapha. (various references)
Source: compiled by the editor from various translation references.
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Ancestral Language Translations: Here
LanguagePeriodTranslations
Latin500 BCE-Modern
ec, hac, hic, hinc, huc. (various references)
Avestan200-600
ýadâ, idha, ithra. (various references)
Source: compiled by the editor from various references.
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Bible Trace: Here
LanguageDateSourceMatthew Chapter 11, Verse 23
Greek (transliterated)250 BCSeptuagintKai su kapernaoum h ewV tou ouranou uywqeisa ewV adou katabibasqhsh oti ei en sodomoiV egenonto ai dunameiV ai genomenai en soi emeinan an mecri thV shmeron

Latin405VulgateEt tu Capharnaum numquid usque in caelum exaltaberis usque in infernum descendes quia si in Sodomis factae fuissent virtutes quae factae sunt in te forte mansissent usque in hunc diem

Old English990West SaxonÆnd þu capharnaum cweðst þubyost þu up-ahafan oððe heofone. ac þuniðer wurst oð helle. For-þan gyf onsodome lande wæren gedone þa manega þegedone synd on þe. witodlice hyo wunedonoð þisne dayg.
Middle English1395WyclifAnd thou, Cafarnaum, whethir thou schalt be arerid vp in to heuene? Thou shalt go doun in to helle. For if the vertues that ben don in thee, hadden be don in Sodom, perauenture thei schulden haue dwellid `in to this dai.
Renaissance English1526TyndaleAnd thou Capernau which art lift vp vnto heve shalt be brought doune to hell. For if the miracles which have bene done in the had bene shewed in zodom: they had remayned to this daye.
Jacobean English1611King JamesAnd thou, Capernaum, which art exalted unto heaven, shalt be brought down to hell: for if the mighty works, which have been done in thee, had been done in Sodom, it would have remained until this day.
Victorian English1833WebsterAnd thou, Capernaum, which art exalted to heaven, shalt be brought down to hell: for if the mighty works which have been done in thee, had been done in Sodom, it would have remained until this day.

Basic English1964OgdenAnd you, Capernaum, were you not to be lifted up to heaven? you will go down into hell: for if the works of power which were done in you had been done in Sodom, it would have been here to this day.

Source: compiled by the editor from various references; see credits.
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Matched Bible Translations: Here
LanguageMatthew Chapter 11, Verse 23
CebuanoUg ikaw Capernaum, igatuboy ka ba diay sa kalangitan? Igaunlod ka hinoon ngadto sa Hades. Kay kon ang mga milagro nga nangahimo diha kanimo didto pa himoa sa Sodoma, magalungtad pa unta kini hangtud niining mga adlawa karon.
Croatian"I ti, Kafarnaume! Zar æeš se do neba uzvisiti? Do u Podzemlje æeš se strovaliti! Doista, da su se u Sodomi zbila èudesa koja su se dogodila u tebi, ostala bi ona do danas.
DanishOg du, Kapernaum! som er bleven ophøjet indtil Himmelen, du skal nedstødes indtil Dødsriget; thi dersom de kraftige Gerninger, som ere skete i dig, vare skete i Sodoma, da var den bleven stående indtil denne Dag.
DutchEn gij, Kapernaum! die tot den hemel toe zijt verhoogd, gij zult tot de hel toe nedergestoten worden. Want zo in Sodom die krachten waren geschied, die in u geschied zijn, zij zouden tot op den huidigen dag gebleven zijn.
FinnishJa sinä, Kapernaum, korotetaankohan sinut hamaan taivaaseen? Hamaan tuonelaan on sinun astuttava alas. Sillä jos ne voimalliset teot, jotka ovat tapahtuneet sinussa, olisivat tapahtuneet Sodomassa, niin se seisoisi vielä tänäkin päivänä.
FrenchEt toi, Capernaüm, seras-tu élevée jusqu`au ciel? Non. Tu seras abaissée jusqu`au séjour des morts; car, si les miracles qui ont été faits au milieu de toi avaient été faits dans Sodome, elle subsisterait encore aujourd`hui.
GermanUnd du, Kapernaum, die du bist erhoben bis an den Himmel, du wirst bis in die Hölle hinuntergestoßen werden. Denn so zu Sodom die Taten geschehen wären, die bei euch geschehen sind, sie stände noch heutigestages.
HungarianTe is  Kapernaum, a ki az égig felmagasztaltattál, a pokolig fogsz megaláztatni; mert ha Sodomában történnek vala azok a csodák, a melyek te benned lõnek, mind e mai napig megmaradt volna.
Indonesian-Bahasa Sehari-hariDan kamu, Kapernaum! Apakah kamu akan ditinggikan sampai ke surga? Tidak! Malah kamu akan dibuang ke neraka! Sebab seandainya keajaiban-keajaiban yang dibuat di tengah-tengahmu itu sudah dibuat di Sodom, Sodom itu masih ada sampai saat ini!
Indonesian-Terjemahan LamaDan engkau, hai Kapernaum! Engkau ditinggikan sampai ke langit? Sampai ke dalam alam maut engkau akan ditolakkan, karena jikalau di dalam Sodom sudah jadi mujizat yang telah berlaku di dalam engkau, niscaya tinggallah ia sampai kepada masa ini.
ItalianE tu, Cafarnao, Fino agli inferi precipiterai! essa esisterebbe!
LatvianUn tu, Kafarnauma, vai tu pacelsies lîdz debesîm? Lîdz pat ellei tu nokritîsi, jo, ja Sodomâ bûtu darîti tie brînumi, kas notika tevî, tâ noteikti paliktu lîdz ðai dienai.
Manx GaelicAs uss, Chapernaum, ta dty ooashley roshtyn gys niau, bee oo er dty hilgey sheese gys niurin: son dy beagh ny obbraghyn yindyssagh er ve jeant ayns Sodom, t'er ve jeant aynyd's, veagh eh er ve er-mayrn gys y laa t'ayn jiu.
MaoriMe koe hoki, e Kaperenauma, e whakateiteitia ranei koe a tae noa ki te rangi? ka heke koe ki te reinga: me i meatia hoki ki Horoma nga merekara kua meatia nei ki a koe, kua tu tonu tera a taea noatia tenei ra.
NorwegianOg du, Kapernaum, som er blitt ophøiet like til himmelen! like til dødsriket skal du bli nedstøtt; for dersom de kraftige gjerninger som er gjort i dig, var gjort i Sodoma, da var det blitt stående til denne dag.
PortugueseE tu, Cafarnaum, porventura serás elevada até o céu? até o hades descerás; porque, se em Sodoma se tivessem operado os milagres que em ti se operaram, teria ela permanecido até hoje.   
RumanianWi tu, Capernaume, vei fi knqlyat oare pknq la cer? Vei fi pogorkt pknq la Locuinya moryilor; cqci dacq ar fi fost fqcute kn Sodoma minunile, cari au fost fqcute kn tine, ea ar fi rqmas kn picioare pknq kn ziua de astqzi.
Shuar`Tura atumsha Kapernáum péprunmayatirmesha, Ashí nankaamas nankaamantu ajastin Enentáimtumarme. Antsu Ashí emestamprartatui. Atumiin aents tujintiamun ti Túraitjai. Sutuma péprunam nu tujintiamu Túramuitkiuinkia nu pepru yamaisha tuke aayi.
Spanish"Y tú, Capernaúm, ¿serás exaltada hasta el cielo? ¡Hasta el Hades serás hundida! Porque si entre los de Sodoma se hubieran realizado los hechos poderosos que se realizaron en ti, habrían permanecido hasta hoy.
SwahiliNa wewe Kafarnaumu, je, utajikweza mpaka mbinguni? Utaporomoshwa mpaka Kuzimu! Maana, kama miujiza iliyofanyika kwako ingalifanyika kule Sodoma, mji huo ungalikuwako mpaka hivi leo.
SwedishOch du, Kapernaum, skall väl du bliva upphöjt till himmelen? Nej, ned till dödsriket måste du fara. Ty om de kraftgärningar som äro gjorda i dig hade blivit gjorda i Sodom, så skulle det hava stått ännu i dag.
Uma"Pai' koi' wo'o to Kapernaum! Ha ni'uli' -koina wae, na'ongko' napomolangko-koi mpai' Alata'ala-e? Uma-e'! Natadi pai' nahuku' lau-dakoi mpai'. Ane rapa' -na tanda mekoncehi to kubabehi hi ngata-ni tetu rababehi owi hi ngata Sodom, ke uma-hawo nakero Alata'ala, ke ria-pidi ngata toe duu' hewa toe-e lau.
Source: compiled by the editor from various references; see credits.
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Derivations & Misspellings: Here
Derivations
Words beginning with "here": hereabout, hereabouts, hereafter, hereafters, hereat, hereaway, hereaways, hereby, heredes, hereditament, hereditaments, hereditarian, hereditarians, hereditarily, hereditary, heredities, heredity, herein, hereinabove, hereinafter, hereinbefore, hereinbelow, hereinto, hereof, hereon, heres, heresiarch, heresiarchs, heresies, heresy, heretic, heretical, heretically, heretics, hereto, heretofore, heretrices, heretrix, heretrixes, hereunder, hereunto, hereupon, herewith. (additional references)
Words ending with "here": adhere, anywhere, asthenosphere, atmosphere, bathysphere, biosphere, chromosphere, cohere, coinhere, ecosphere, elsewhere, ensphere, everywhere, exosphere, hemisphere, hydrosphere, inhere, insphere, ionosphere, isothere, lithosphere, magnetosphere, mesosphere, microsphere, noosphere, nowhere, oosphere, otherwhere, ozonosphere, photosphere, planisphere, rhizosphere, somewhere, sphere, stratosphere, there, thermosphere, torchere, troposphere, unsphere, where. (additional references)
Words containing "here": adhered, adherence, adherences, adherend, adherends, adherent, adherently, adherents, adherer, adherers, adheres, anywheres, aphereses, apheresis, asthenospheres, atmosphered, atmospheres, bathyspheres, biospheres, blathered, blatherer, blatherers, blethered, blithered, bothered, brothered, butchered, chromospheres, ciphered, cohered, coherence, coherences, coherencies, coherency, coherent, coherently, coherer, coherers, coheres, coinhered, coinheres, coshered, cyphered, deciphered, decipherer, decipherers, dithered, ditherer, ditherers, ecospheres, enciphered. (additional references)

Misspellings
"Here" is suggested in spellcheckers for the following: ahere, bhera, eere, eher, ehie, Ehren, gheer, hara, haray, harne, harra, harrel, Harue, harve, haure, hayer, heare, hearye, hede, hedra, hee, heeem, heer, Heere, Heerema, Heery, heev, heeze, Hefe, hege, hehe, heiro, heme, Hene, heora, heorem, hepe, heram, herbe, herc, herde, hered, herem, Heren, hereo, herer, heret, hereu, herez, herf, herfer, herg, Hergen, Herget, heri, Heric, herk, Herlev, heroe, herp, herpe, herra, herry, Herse, hersen, herum, herv, Herye, herz, herze, herzes, Hese, hetro, heuen, heure, heve, hexe, hexen, heye, h'eye, heze, hfro, hier, Hiera, hiero, Hierro, hira, hiree, hirev, Hiri, hirne, hiro, hirte, horce, Horejc, horet, horf, Horge, Horie, horra, hre, hreu, hure, Hurel, Huri, Hurke, huro, hurre, Hurree, Hurrel, Hyre, hyro, iere, phedre, phere, yere, zere. (additional references)
Source: compiled by the editor, based on several corpora (additional references).
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Rhyming with "Here"
# of Phoneme MatchesPronunciationWord(s) rhyming with "here" (pronounced hi"r)
3h i" radhere, hear, overhear, rehear.
2-i" rAmir, appear, auctioneer, austere, bandolier, beer, belvedere, bioengineer, bombardier, Brigadier, budgeteer, career, cashier, cavalier, chandelier, cheer, Chevalier, clear, commandeer, conventioneer, dear, deer, disappear, domineer, ear, electioneer, emir, engineer, fear, financier, fleer, Frere, frontier, gear, gondolier, insincere, interfere, jeer, Kier, Lear, marketeer, mere, mir, mutineer, near, pamphleteer, peer, persevere, pier, pioneer, premier, premiere, profiteer, queer, Racketeer, Rainier, reappear, rear, reengineer, revere, sear, sere, severe, shear, sheer, sincere, smear, sneer, souvenir, spear, Speer, speir, sphere, steer, summiteer, unclear, veer, veneer, volunteer, year, Zaire.
Source: compiled by the editor (additional references); see credits.
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Anagrams: Here
Scrabble® Enable2K-Verified Anagrams
Words within the letters "e-e-h-r"
-1 letter: ere, her, ree.
-2 letters: eh, er, he, re.
 Words containing the letters "e-e-h-r"
 
+1 letter: cheer, ether, heder, heres, hewer, hexer, rehem, sheer, there, three, where.
 
+2 letters: adhere, aether, breech, cheder, cheero, cheers, cheery, chevre, chewer, cohere, creche, creesh, echoer, either, etcher, ethers, euchre, haeres, hareem, header, healer, hearer, hearse, heater, heaver, heders, hedger, heeder, heeler, hefter, heifer, heired, heller, helper, hemmer, herbed, herded, herder, hereat, hereby, herein, hereof, hereon, heresy, hereto, hermae, heroes, herpes, hetero, hewers, hexers, inhere, lecher, nether, rechew, reecho, reechy, rehear, reheat, reheel, rehems, rehire, reshes, reshoe, rushee, sheers, shewer, sphere, tether, theres, therme, threep, threes, wether, wheres, wherve.
Source: compiled by the editor from various references; see credits.

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INDEX
 1. Definition 
 2. Synonyms 
 3. Crosswords 
 4. Usage: Modern 		 5. Usage: Commercial 
 6. Images: Slideshow 
 7. Images: Photo Album 
 8. Images: Digital Art 		 9. Quotations: Familiar 
 10. Quotations: Historic 
 11. Quotations: Fiction 
 12. Quotations: Non-fiction 		 13. Quotations: Spoken 
 14. Quotations: Speeches 
 15. Usage Frequency 
 16. Names: Derived from 		 17. Expressions 
 18. Expressions: Internet 
 19. Translations: Modern 
 20. Translations: Ancient 		 21. Bible Trace 
 22. Derivations 
 23. Rhymes 
 24. Anagrams 		 25. Bibliography 


  
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