Copyright © Philip M. Parker, INSEAD. Terms of Use.
Definitions: Mandarin |
MandarinNoun1. Shrub or small tree having flattened globose fruit with very sweet aromatic pulp and thin yellow-orange to flame-orange rind that is loose and easily removed; native to southeastern Asia. 2. A member of an elite intellectual or cultural group. 3. Any high government official or bureaucrat. 4. A high public official of the Chinese Empire. 5. A somewhat flat reddish-orange loose-skinned citrus of China. 6. The dialect of Chinese spoken in Beijing and adopted as the official language for all of China. Source: WordNet 1.7.1 Copyright © 2001 by Princeton University. All rights reserved. |
Date "mandarin" was first used in popular English literature: sometime before 1755. (references) |
| Domain | Definitions |
Food & Agriculture | Citrus hybrid. Source: European Union. (references) |
| A small flattish deep-coloured orange with a loose skin, growing on the tree Citrus reticulata. Source: European Union. (references) | |
Source: compiled by the editor from various references; see credits. | |
(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
Mandarin is the official variant of the Chinese language used in the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of China on Taiwan (ROC). It is also one of four official languages in Singapore. The efforts of both the PRC and ROC to promote Mandarin as the standard tongue has made it the most widely-spoken Chinese dialect. There are more speakers of Mandarin than of any other spoken language.
In the PRC, the language is known as Putonghua (普通話, "the common language") or Han yu (漢語, the language of the Han). (Note that while the term Han yu is commonly used to refer to Mandarin, this terminology is sometimes contested by speakers of other Chinese dialects, who feel the name implies that the language is somehow closer to ancient Chinese than other dialects. Some speakers of Hakka, for example, will object that their own dialect should carry the name Han yu, as its grammar is closer to that of ancient texts.) On Taiwan, the language is officially known as Guoyu (國語,"the national language"). Among overseas Chinese communities, particularly in South East Asia, the language is known as Huayu (華語 "the Chinese language"),
The standard form of Mandarin Chinese uses the sounds of Beijing but there are regional variations in pronunciation. Nevertheless, Mandarin is also sometimes incorrectly known as Beijingese (Beijing hua or Beijing fangyan), or Jing pianzi (京片子). In Taiwan, those espousing complete independence from mainland China often insist on using the term Beijing hua instead of Guoyu in order to promote the idea that Taiwanese should be the new national language.
Until the mid-20th century, most Chinese living in southern China did not speak any Mandarin. However, despite the mix of officials and commoners speaking various Chinese dialects, Beijingese Mandarin became dominant at least during the officially Manchu-speaking Qing Empire. Since the 17th century, the Empire had set up Orthoepy Academies (正音書院 Zhengyin Shuyuan) in an attempt to make pronunciation conform to the Beijing standard. But these attempts had little success.
This situation changed with the creation (in both the PRC and the ROC) of an elementary school education system committed to teaching Mandarin. As a result, Mandarin is now spoken fluently by most people in Mainland China and in Taiwan. In Hong Kong, the language of education and formal speech remains Cantonese but Mandarin is becoming increasingly influential.
Most Chinese, including the Chinese political leaders themselves, do not speak Mandarin with a Beijingese accent, and there are many local variations of Mandarin. In northern China and Sichuan, these local variations predated the era of mass education in Mandarin. In the south, the interaction between Mandarin and local dialects has produced combinations which are rather different from official standard Mandarin in pronounciation and grammar. For example, Mandarin in Taiwan is usually spoken with a grammar and accent that renders it different from the Kuoyu standard, creating a version of Mandarin commonly known as Taiwan Mandarin.
Although Mandarin is considered the standard dialect, speaking Mandarin without the local accent or speaking Mandarin instead of the local dialect can mark a person as being an outsider.
Ever since the first Westerners entered China and attempted to learn Mandarin,
the need for some kind of phonetic transcription system to record the pronunciation of Chinese characters became apparent. Over the years, many such systems have been proposed. The first to be widely accepted was the Wade-Giles system, named after its 19th century inventors. This system is still in use today, though not in mainland.
In the 20th century, Chinese linguists proposed various transcription systems, one of which even introduced a whole new syllabic alphabet: the Zhuyin system. The most successful of these transcription systems was Hanyu Pinyin, which was accepted as the official transcription system for the Chinese language by the PRC in 1958 and later by the United Nations and other international organizations. During the 1950s, there were plans for Pinyin to supersede the Chinese characters. These plans, however, proved to be impractical due to the lare number of homonyms in the Chinese language.
A variety of transcription systems are used on Taiwan. The ROC national government adopted Tongyong Pinyin in 2002, but has permitted local governments override that decision in favor of their own romanization systems. Zhuyin used as the method of learning in schools. Efforts to phase out this system in favor of pinyin have been stalled out of disagreement over which form of pinyin to use, and the massive effort needed to produce new educational materials and completely retrain teachers.
Other less popular and outdated Romanizations include:
To listen to the tones, see http://www.wku.edu/~shizhen.gao/Chinese101/pinyin/tones.htm
Pronunciation also varies with context according to the rules of tone sandhi.
See also: Chinese grammar
Since Chinese has so few syllables, Mandarin speakers typically experience great difficulty in pronouncing words from languages rich in consonant clusters, e.g. most European languages. Additionally, syllables that do not conform to the Mandarin pattern cannot be directly transcribed into Chinese characters. There is an official system for approximating foreign words using Chinese characters, but this sometimes yields strange results and is mainly used for rendering
foreign names.
For example, the word "telephone" was translated into "delüfeng" in the 1920s, but later it was changed to the more harmonious "dianhua", which is a word derived from Japanese kanji. On the other hand, the word for "microphone" remains "maikefeng". Because of the close relationship between written Chinese hanzi and Japanese kanji, Mandarin borrowed many Japanese words that had originally been derived from European words in the late 19th century and early 20th century.
Because of these transcription difficulties, it is more common to coin new words in Mandarin than to borrow foreign words directly.
These new words are usually polysyllabic. Often one syllable conveys the word's "subject". (This is similar to the way in which many individual Chinese characters are composed.) For example, the Mandarin word for "beer" is "pi2 jiu3" (啤酒 for pronunciation issues see the Pinyin page). The first syllable ("pi" 啤) is a phonetic rendering, whereas the second syllable (酒) is the Mandarin word for "alcoholic beverage".
Since this way of incorporating foreign words is very cumbersome, the Chinese tend to invent their own words for technical innovations (the word for "train" (火車), e.g., means "fire vehicle"); so the international set of technical expressions deriving from Latin and Greek is not found in Mandarin.
To the dismay of non-Mandarin speakers, the predominant role of Mandarin has led to the misidentification of Mandarin as "the Chinese language". Although both the PRC and the ROC use Mandarin as the official language and promote its nationwide use, Mandarin
is still far from supplanting the local dialects that are in daily use in many parts of China,
especially in the southern provinces of the PRC. Many Chinese language speakers in mainland China do not speak Mandarin very well.
In the predominantly Han areas within the People's Republic of China, the interaction between Mandarin and the local Chinese dialects has generally not been controversial. Although the use of Mandarin is encouraged as the common working language, the PRC has attempted to be sensitive to the status of local dialects and has not discouraged their use. Mandarin, however, is used very commonly for logistical reasons in that it is often the only means of communication between people of different regions, and because in some parts of China, local dialects from regions as close as a few kilometers are mutually unintelligible.
In the Republic of China, the relationship between Mandarin and local dialects, particularly Taiwanese has been more heated. Until the 1980s the government attempted to discourage the use of Taiwanese, even portraying it as inferior. This produced a backlash in the 1990s. Although some more extreme supporters of Taiwan independence tend to be opposed to Mandarin in favor of Taiwanese, efforts to replace Mandarin either with Taiwanese or with a multi-lingual standard have remained stalled.
See also:
Name
The English term comes from the Portuguese mandarim (from Malay menteri, from a Sanskrit word meaning 'counselor'); it is a translation of the Chinese term Guanhua (官話), which literally means the language of the mandarins (imperial magistrates), although this term is considered archaic in Chinese. History
Most Chinese living in northern China and in Sichuan use various Mandarin dialects as their home language. The prevalence of Mandarin throughout northern China is largely the result of geography, namely the plains of north China. By contrast, the mountains and rivers of southern China have promoted linguistic diversity. The presence of Mandarin in Sichuan is largely due to a plague in the 12th century. This plague, which may have been related to the black death, depopulated the area, leading to later settlement from north China.Mandarin and Beijingese
One common misconception is that Mandarin is the same as "Beijing dialect". It is true that the standard pronunciation and grammar of Mandarin are based on the Beijing dialect, but "standard Mandarin" is a rather elusive concept. In any case, Mandarin spoken outside of Beijing differs from Beijingese in a number of important respects: residents of Beijing tend to make very heavy use of retroflex suffixes, and there are many differences in vocabulary.Variations
From an official point of view, there are two Mandarins, since the Beijing government refers to that on the Mainland Putonghua, or "Common Language", whereas the Taipei government refers to their official language as Kuo-yü, or "National Language". Officially, Putonghua includes pronounciations from a number of different regions, while Kuoyu is theoretically based on the Beijing sounds only. However, both versions of Mandarin are often quite different from the Mandarin which is usually spoken.Transcription systems
Tones
Mandarin, like all Chinese dialects, is a tonal language. A syllable can be left toneless or pronounced in one of four pitches. These changes in tone also change meaning, but a single phrase/word/sentence has only one set of invariable tone, independent of the speakers' mood. The four different pitches are:
Most romanizations represent the tones as diacritics on the vowels (e.g., Pinyin, MPS II and Tongyong Pinyin). Zhuyin uses diacritics as well. Others, like Wade-Giles, uses superscript number at the end of each syllable. Representation of Chinese tone marks/numbers is rarely practised outside of textbooks. Gwoyeu Romatzyh is a rare example where tones are not represented as special symbols, but as true alphabet letters (hence creating a very complex orthography).Pronunciation and Grammar
The set of syllables in Chinese is very small, since each syllable has to be constructed after the pattern: "optional initial consonant followed by vowel followed by optional nasal". Not every syllable that is possible according to this rule is actually used, and in practice there are only a few hundred syllables. For example, Mandarin totally lacks the ending 'm' sound. People with a heavy Mandarin accent would often read 'time' as 'tyne'. The implications of this are discussed in the Chinese language article as are the main features of Chinese (and hence Mandarin) grammar.Adoption of Foreign Words
Mandarin Chinese and other dialects
External links
Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Mandarin."
| The following table is compiled from various sources, across various languages. When English abbreviations or acronyms come from a non-English source, this is noted. | |||
| Entry | Source | Expression | Field |
MANDARIN | English | Machine aided notification dissemination and retrieval of information | Computing, Information |
Source: compiled by the editor, based on several corpora (additional references). | |||
Synonyms: MandarinSynonyms: mandarin orange (n), mandarin orange tree (n). (additional references) |
| Context | Synonyms within Context (source: adapted from Roget's Thesaurus). |
Master | Regent, viceroy, exarch, palatine, khedive, hospodar, beglerbeg, three-tailed bashaw, pasha, bashaw, bey, beg, dey, scherif, tetrarch, satrap, mandarin, subahdar, nabob, maharajah; burgrave; laird; (proprietor); collector, commissioner, deputy commissioner, woon. |
| Source: adapted from Roget's Thesaurus. | |
Crosswords: Mandarin |
| English words defined with "mandarin": Aix ♦ Citrus limonia, Citrus tangelo, clementine, clementine tree ♦ genus Aix ♦ lemanderin ♦ Mandarin Chinese, Mandarin dialect, mandarin duck, Mandarin language, mandarin orange, mandarin orange tree, Mandarin yellow, Mandarinic ♦ rangpur, rangpur lime ♦ satsuma, satsuma tree ♦ tangelo, tangelo tree, tangerine, tangerine tree ♦ ugli fruit. (references) |
| Specialty definitions using "mandarin": Kingly Titles ♦ Red Button. (references) |
| Non-English Usage: "Mandarin" is also a word in the following languages with English translations in parentheses. Albanian (mandarin), Danish (tangerine), French (mandarin), German (mandarin), Hungarian (mandarin, tangerine), Romanian (mandarin), Serbo-Croatian (mandarin), Swedish (mandarin, tangerine), Turkmen (mandarin, tangerine). |
| Domain | Usage | |
Movie/TV Titles | Der Große Mandarin (1949) The Mandarin Mystery (1936) Mandarin Mix-Up (1924) Le Mandarin (1980) | |
Source: compiled by the editor from various references; see credits. | ||
| Domain | Title | ||
References | |||
Books | |||
Periodicals |
| ||
Theater & Movies | |||
Music |
| ||
High Tech |
| ||
Source: compiled by the editor from various references; see credits. | |||
| Thumbnail | Description & Credit |  | The mandarin.Credit: Library of Congress. |
Source: compiled by the editor from various references; see credits. | |||
| Subject | Topic | Quote |
Business | Mandarin Chinese is the official language of Taiwan. (references) | |
Civil Liberties | Macau | Macau Radio broadcasts in both Portuguese and Chinese (Cantonese and Mandarin). (references) |
Indonesia | In November 2000, a new independent television station, Metro TV, began broadcasting 2 hours of news in Mandarin per day. (references) | |
China | Other officials confirmed that also beginning in September, teachers at Urumqi's Xinjiang University would have to be able to teach classes in Mandarin, in addition to any other language they understood. (references) | |
Economic History | China | Language: Mandarin (Putonghua), plus many local dialects. (references) |
Singapore | Languages: English, Mandarin and other Chinese dialects, Malay, Tamil. (references) | |
China | Mandarin (or Putonghua), the predominant dialect, is spoken by over 70% of the population. (references) | |
Minorities | Singapore | During 1999 there was great debate over the fact that advertisements often specify ethnicity and gender requirements or require fluent Mandarin speakers. (references) |
China | According to a Government white paper, in 1998 there were approximately 8 million Uighurs, 2.5 million other ethnic minorities, and 6.4 million Han in Xinjiang, up from 300,000 Han in 1949. In many areas with a significant population of minorities, there are two-track school systems using either Mandarin Chinese or the local minority language. (references) | |
Travel | Mauritius | A number of oriental languages (Hindi, Urdu, Mandarin) are also spoken. (references) |
Source: compiled by the editor from ICON Group International, Inc.; see credits. | ||
| "Mandarin" is generally used as a noun (singular) -- approximately 81.46% of the time. "Mandarin" is used about 178 times out of a sample of 100 million words spoken or written in English. Its rank is based on over 700,000 words used in the English language. Some parts-of-speech are not covered due to the samples used by the British National Corpus. (note: percents less than one-hundredth of one percent have been omitted) |
| Parts of Speech | Percent | Usage per 100 Million Words | Rank in English |
| Noun (singular) | 81.46% | 145 | 26,217 |
| Noun (proper) | 18.54% | 33 | 60,273 |
| Total | 100.00% | 178 | N/A |
Source: compiled by the editor from several corpora; see credits.
| Country | Name |
| Hong Kong | Mandarin Oriental International Limited |
| (more examples...) |
Source: compiled by the editor from Icon Group International, Inc.
Expressions using "mandarin": mandarin chinese ♦ mandarin dialect ♦ mandarin duck ♦ mandarin language ♦ mandarin orange ♦ mandarin orange tree ♦ Mandarin yellow. Additional references. | |
| Hyphenated Usage | |
Beginning with "mandarin": mandarin-collar, mandarin-like, mandarin-speaking. | |
Ending with "mandarin": ex-mandarin. | |
| Source: compiled by the editor from various references; see credits. | |
| The following statistics estimate the number of searches per day across the major English-language search engines as identified by various trade publications. Hyperlinks lead to commercial use of the expression at Amazon.com. |
| Expression | Frequency per Day |
mandarin | 362 |
mandarin oriental | 220 |
club el mandarin | 138 |
mandarin restaurant | 132 |
mandarin oriental hotel | 122 |
mandarin hotel | 115 |
kahala mandarin | 69 |
mandarin duck | 69 |
learn mandarin | 59 |
agriculture mandarin | 57 |
mandarin oriental miami | 54 |
mandarin chinese | 35 |
mandarin oriental hong kong | 34 |
mandarin orange salad | 33 |
mandarin language | 31 |
bravo club el mandarin | 29 |
mandarin collar | 29 |
mandarin hotel miami | 28 |
mandarin buffet | 26 |
mandarin oriental hotel miami | 26 |
| Source: compiled by the editor from various references; see credits. | |
| Language | Translations for "mandarin"; alternative meanings/domain in parentheses. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Albanian | mandarinë (tangerine), mandarin, drejtues i keq. (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Arabic | موظف كبير (senior official), المندرين يوسفي (tangerine), اللغة الصينية الشمالية, شجرة اليوسفي. (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Bulgarian | книжовен китайски език, надута авторитетна личност, надут (bombastic, conceited, consequential, coxcombical, declamatory, florid, grandiloquent, haughty, high-blown, highfaluting, important, inflated, magniloquent, mouthy, orotund, overblown, pompous, portentous, prancing, puffy, sidy, solemn, sounding, stilted, swelling, swollen, theatrical, tumid, uppish, uppity), мандарина (tangerine), мандарин, бюрократ (rubber stamp), бомбастичен (high-flown, mouth-filling, mouthy, pompous, puffy, sounding, spread eagle, tumid, turgid), педантичен (academic, academical, bookish, donnish, finical, literal, niminy-piminy, pedantic, pettifogging, precise, priggish, punctilious, punctual, scholastic, starchy, stuffy). (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Chinese | 北京话, 普通話 (Putonghua). (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Czech | mandarinka (tangerine), mandarín. (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Danish | mandariner (tangerine), mandarinand, mandarin (tangerine). (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Dutch | mandarijnen (tangerine), mandarijneend, mandarijn (mandarin-orange tree, tangerine-orange tree). (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Finnish | mandariini (mandarin tangerine, tangerine). (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
French | mandarine. (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
German | Mandarine (tangerine). (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Greek | μανταρίνι (tangerine), μανδαρινόπαπια. (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Hungarian | mandarin nyelv, mandarin (tangerine), nagyfejû (big-headed, heavy-headed, macrocephalous, mugwump, panjandrum). (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Italian | mandarino (mandarin-orange tree, tangerine, tangerine-orange tree). (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Japanese Kanji | 蜜柑 , マントル対流論 (a mannerism, mandolin, mandrake, Manhattan, manna, mannan, mannerism, mantle convection theory), マンクス猫 (apartment house, large apartment, Manchester, mandarin collar, Mandelbrot, mandrill, mango, mangosteen, mangrove, manteau, mantis, mantle, mantlepiece, man-to-man, man-to-man defense, Manx cat, mongoose, monthly, Munshingwear, one-to-one, paying off one's entire credit card balance monthly). (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Japanese Katakana | マンダリン , マンドリン (mandolin), みか" (incomplete, unfinished, unpublished). (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Korean | 관". (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Manx | oranje heenagh, mandareen. (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Pig Latin | andarinmay mandarina (mandarine), mandarim, tangerinas (tangerine, tangerines), tangelineira, pato-mandarim, despacho (adroitness, by law, clearing, decree, despatch, dispatch, expedition, judgment, knack, order, resourcefulness), alto funcionário chinês. (various references) mare dregãtor, mandarinã, mandarin, lichior de mandarine, înalt funcţionar. (various references) мандарин (tangerine). (various references) mandarinski, mandarin. (various references) mandarina (mandarin orange, tangerine), mandarín. (various references) mandarin (tangerine), hög ämbetsman. (various references) mandalina (mandarin orange, tangerine, tangerine orange), kuzey çin lehçesi, çin'de yüksek memur. (various references) mandarin (tangerine). (various references) мандарин (tangerine). (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Language | Period | Translations |
| Latin | 500 BCE-Modern | Aix galericulata, Citrus nobilis lour, Citrus reticulata Blanco, RM:anda mandarina. (various references) |
| Source: compiled by the editor from various references. | ||
Derivations | |
Words beginning with "mandarin": mandarinate, mandarinates, mandarinic, mandarinism, mandarinisms, mandarins. (additional references) | |
| |
"Mandarin" is suggested in spellcheckers for the following: Kandari, Kandhari, madain, madarin, madiran, Mamarev, Mamyrin, manavi, Mandali, mandare, mandarian, mandarine, mandaring, Mandatio, manderin, mandering, Mandira, mandora, mandrain, Mandrian, mandrin, Mannari, Mantaring, Mantiri, Mcnairn, mundain, Munderic, Namdar, Zanderij. (additional references) | |
| Source: compiled by the editor, based on several corpora (additional references). | |
| # of Phoneme Matches | Pronunciation | Word(s) rhyming with "mandarin" (pronounced ma"nderun) |
| 3 | -er u n | cephalosporin, intrauterine, margarine, nitroglycerin, nitroglycerine, saccharin, tamarin, uterine, veteran. |
Source: compiled by the editor (additional references); see credits. | ||
Scrabble® Enable2K-Verified Anagrams | |
| Words within the letters "a-a-d-i-m-n-n-r" | |
-2 letters: aidman, airman, aramid, marina, radian, randan. | |
-3 letters: adman, amain, amnia, anima, daman, damar, dinar, drain, drama, inarm, mania, manna, maria, nadir, naiad, naira, ranid. | |
-4 letters: airn, amia, amid, amin, amir, anna, aria, arid, damn, darn, dram, maar, maid, main, mair, mana, mina, mind, naan, nada, nana, nard, raia, raid, rain, rami, rand, rani, rind. | |
-5 letters: aid, aim, ain, air, ama, ami, ana, and, ani, arm, dam, dim, din, inn, mad, man, mar, mid, mir, nam, nan, nim, rad, ram, ran, ria, rid, rim, rin. | |
| Words containing the letters "a-a-d-i-m-n-n-r" | |
+1 letter: mandarins. | |
+2 letters: mainlander, mandarinic, marinading. | |
+3 letters: chairmanned, mainlanders, mandarinate, mandarinism, nondramatic. | |
+4 letters: administrant, mandarinates, mandarinisms, salamandrine. | |
+5 letters: administrants, animadversion, animadverting, determinantal, documentarian, mediterranean, neuraminidase, randomization, rhadamanthine. | |
| Source: compiled by the editor from various references; see credits. SCRABBLE® is a registered trademark. All intellectual property rights in and to the game are owned in the U.S.A and Canada by Hasbro Inc., and throughout the rest of the world by J.W. Spear & Sons Limited of Maidenhead, Berkshire, England, a subsidiary of Mattel Inc. Mattel and Spear are not affiliated with Hasbro. | |
Hexadecimal (or equivalents, 770AD-1900s) (references)4D 61 6E 64 61 72 69 6E |
| Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519; backwards) (references)
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| American Sign Language (origins from 1620-1817 in Italy and, especially, France) (references)
|
| Semaphore (1791, in France) (references)
|
| Braille (1829, in France) (references)
|
Morse Code (1836) (references)-- .- -. -.. .- .-. .. -. |
| Dancing Men (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, 1903) (references)
|
Binary Code (1918-1938, probably earlier) (references)01001101 01100001 01101110 01100100 01100001 01110010 01101001 01101110 |
HTML Code (1990) (references)M a n d a r i n |
ISO 10646 (1991-1993) (references)004D 0061 006E 0064 0061 0072 0069 006E |
| British Sign Language (Fingerspelling, BSL; 1992, British Deaf Association Dictionary of British Sign Language) (references)
|
Encryption (beginner's substitution cypher): (references)4767807067847580 |
| 1. Definition 2. Synonyms 3. Crosswords 4. Usage: Modern | 5. Usage: Commercial 6. Images: Slideshow 7. Images: Photo Album 8. Quotations: Non-fiction | 9. Usage Frequency 10. Names: Company Usage 11. Expressions 12. Expressions: Internet | 13. Translations: Modern 14. Translations: Ancient 15. Abbreviations 16. Acronyms | 17. Derivations 18. Rhymes 19. Anagrams 20. Orthography | 21. Bibliography |
Copyright © Philip M. Parker, INSEAD. Terms of Use.
