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C

Definition: C

C

Adjective

1. Of a temperature scale that registers the freezing point of water as 0 degrees C and the boiling point as 100 degrees C under normal atmospheric pressure.

2. Being ten more than ninety.

Noun

1. A degree on the Centigrade scale of temperature.

2. The speed at which light travels in a vacuum; the constancy and universality of the speed of light is recognized by defining it to be exactly 299,792,458 meters per second.

3. An abundant nonmetallic tetravalent element occurring in three allotropic forms: amorphous carbon and graphite and diamond; occurs in all organic compounds.

4. Ten 10s.

5. A unit of electrical charge equal to the amount of charge transferred by a current of 1 ampere in 1 second.

6. A general-purpose programing language closely associated with the UNIX operating system.

7. The 3rd letter of the Roman alphabet.

8. A narcotic (alkaloid) extracted from coca leaves; used as a surface anesthetic or taken for pleasure; can become addictive.

Source: WordNet 1.7.1 Copyright © 2001 by Princeton University. All rights reserved.
 

Date "c" was first used in popular English literature: sometime before 1050. (references)

 

Specialty Definition: C

DomainDefinition

Computing

C++ /C'-pluhs-pluhs/ n. Designed by Bjarne Stroustrup of AT&T Bell Labs as a successor to C. Now one of the languages of choice, although many hackers still grumble that it is the successor to either Algol 68 or Ada (depending on generation), and a prime example of second-system effect. Almost anything that can be done in any language can be done in C++, but it requires a language lawyer to know what is and what is not legal-- the design is _almost_ too large to hold in even hackers' heads. Much of the cruft results from C++'s attempt to be backward compatible with C. Stroustrup himself has said in his retrospective book "The Design and Evolution of C++" (p. 207), "Within C++, there is a much smaller and cleaner language struggling to get out." [Many hackers would now add "Yes, and it's called Java" --ESR] calculator [Cambridge] n. Syn. for bitty box. Camel Book n. Universally recognized nickname for the book "Programming Perl", by Larry Wall and Randal L. Schwartz, O'Reilly and Associates 1991, ISBN 0-937175-64-1 (second edition 1996, ISBN 1-56592-149-6; third edition 2000, 0-596-00027-8, adding as auhors Tom Christiansen and Jon Orwant but dropping Randal Schwartz). The definitive reference on Perl. can vt. To abort a job on a time-sharing system. Used esp. when the person doing the deed is an operator, as in "canned from the {console". Frequently used in an imperative sense, as in "Can that print job, the LPT just popped a sprocket!" Synonymous with gun. It is said that the ASCII character with mnemonic CAN (0011000) was used as a kill-job character on some early OSes, but this is more likely to be short for `cancel'. Alternatively, this term may derive from mainstream slang `canned' for being laid off or fired. can't happen The traditional program comment. Source: Jargon File.

Census

A high-level computer programming language. (references)

Literature

C
C This letter is the outline of the hollow of the hand, and is called in Hebrew caph (the hollow of the hand).
C. The French, c, when it is to be sounded like s, has a mark under it ; this mark is called a cedilla. (A diminutive of z; called zeta in Greek, ceda in Spanish.)
C There is more than one poem written of which every word begins with C. For example:
(1) One composed by HUEBALD in honour of Charles le Chauve. It is in Latin hexameters and runs to somewhat more than a hundred lines, the last two of which are
"Conveniet claras claustris componere cannas
Completur clarus carmen cantabile CALVIS."
(2) One by HAMCONIUS, called "Certamen catholicum cum Calvinistis."
(3) One by HENRY HARDER, of 100 lines in Latin, on "Cats," entitled: "Canum cum Catis certamen carmine compositum currente calamo C. Catulli Caninii." The first line is-
"Cattorum canimus certamina clara canumque."
Cats' canine caterwauling contests chant.
See M and P for other examples. Source: Brewer's Dictionary.

Space

The speed of light, 299,792 km per second. (references)

Source: compiled by the editor from various references; see credits.

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Specialty Definition: Alkyl

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

In chemistry, an alkyl is a univalent aliphatic hydrocarbon radical ( CnH2n+1). Alkyl is a hydrocarbon radical derived from alkanes ( CnH2n+2) by removal of one hydrogen atom.

Examples are :CH3- methyl; C2H5- ethyl, C3H7- propyl...

See also: transesterification, alkene.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Alkyl."

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Aozora Bunko: C

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

See Aozora Bunko

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Benzene

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

The chemical compound benzene (C6H6) is a colorless, flammable, aromatic hydrocarbon, that is a known carcinogen. It boils at 80.1°C and solidifies at 5.5°C. Benzene has a heat of vaporization of 44.3 kJ/mol and a heat of fusion of 9.84 kJ/mol. Produced by hydrogen reduction of some allotropes of carbon, or from petroleum, it is used in the creation of drugs, plastics, gasoline, synthetic rubber, and dyes.

Other aromatic compounds created by the replacement of hydrogen atoms with methyl (CH3) groups are called the benzene series. If one hydrogen is replaced, the new chemical is called toluene, (C6H5CH3), from which trinitrotoluene (TNT) is derived. If two hydrogens are replaced it becomes xylene, (C6H4(CH3)2).

Replacement of the hydrogen atoms with other functional groups produces additional derivaties. A hydroxyl group (OH) produces phenol (C6H5OH), and additional nitration produces picric acid, or trinitrophenol. Replacement with an amino group (-NH2) produces aniline (C6H5(NH2))

Two or more rings may be joined together, as in naphthalene, anthracene, and phenanthrene. Other atoms, such as nitrogen, may be substituted for carbon atoms in the ring, as in pyridine (C5H5N) and pyrimidine (C4H4N2): in this case the ring is said to be a heterocyclic ring.

Structure

The formula of benzene (C6H6), caused a mystery for some time after its discovery, as no proposed structure could take account of all the bonds (Carbon usually forms four single bonds and hydrogen one).

The chemist Kekulé was the first to deduce the ring structure of benzene; after years of studying carbon bonding, benzene and related molecules, the solution to the benzene structure came to him in a dream of a snake eating its own tail. Upon waking was inspired to deduce the ring structure of benzene.

While his claims were well publicized and accepted, by the early 1920s Kekulé's biographer came to the conclusion that Kekulé's understanding of the tetravalent nature carbon bonding depended on the previous research of Archibald Scott Couper (1831-1892); further, the German Chemist Josef Loschmidt (1821-1895) had earlier posited a cyclic structure for benzene as early as 1862, although he had not actually proved this structure to be correct.

Benzene presents a problem, as to account for all the bonds, there must be alternating double carbon bonds:

However, all of the carbon-carbon bonds in benzene are of the same length, and it is known that a single bond is longer than a double bond. In addition, the bond length (the distance between the two bonded atoms) in benzene is greater than a double bond, but shorter than a single bond. There seems in effect to be a bond and a half between each carbon.

This is explained by electron delocalization. In order to picture this, we must consider the position of electrons in the bonds of benzene. The single bonds are formed with electrons orbiting in paths in line with this page. The double bonds consist of a single bond and another bond. This second bond has electrons orbiting in paths above and below the plane of this page at each bonded carbon atom. In the diagram below we take a side-view of this occurring:

@ @
C-C
@ @

The '-' denotes the single bond, and the '@'s denote the orbitals of the electrons forming the double bonds.

Being out of the plane of the atoms, these electrons can interact with each other freely, and become delocalised. This means that instead of being tied to one atom of carbon, they are shared by all six in the ring. Thus there are not enough to form double bonds on all the carbon atoms, but the atoms do strengthen all of the bonds on the ring equally.

What in effect is happening is that the structure exists as a superposition of the above forms, rather than either form individually. This type of structure is called a resonance hybrid.

To reflect the delocalised nature of the bonding, benzene is usually depicted as a circle inside a hexagon in chemical structure diagrams:

Benzene occurs sufficiently often as a component of organic molecules that there is a Unicode symbol to represent it; code 232C, ⌬

Production

Benzene may result whenever carbon-rich materials undergo incomplete combustion. It is produced naturally in volcanoes and forest fires, and is also a component of cigarette smoke. Industrially, it is produced from either coal or petroleum. The steel industry 'cokes' coal. This coke is then 'cracked' to yield Benzene(63%), Toluene(14%) & Xylene(7%). Alternatively an Olefin plant will produce Benzene as a by-product of cracking naptha or gas oil.

It is one of the components of the coal tars given off when coal in converted to coke. Up until World War II, this source of benzene was sufficient to meet world demand for the chemical. However, in the 1950's, increasing demand for benzene, especially for the growing plastics necessitated the production of benzene from petroleum. Today, most benzene comes from the petrochemical industry, with only a small fraction being produced from coal.

Uses

Prior to the 1920's, benzene was frequently used as an industrial solvent, especially for degreasing metal. As its toxicity became obvious, other solvents replaced benzene in application that directly exposed the user to benzene.

As a gasoline additive, benzene increases the octane rating and reduces knocking. As a result, gasoline once often contained several percent benzene, although in the 1950s tetraethyl lead replaced it as the most widely used antiknock additive. However, with the global phaseout of leaded gasoline, benzene has made a comeback as a gasoline additive in some nations. In the United States, concern over its negative health effects and the possibility of benzene entering the groundwater have led to stringent regulation of gasoline's benzene content. Many European nations, on the other hand, either do not regulate benzene in gasoline or allow significant quantities of it, and European gasoline formulations often contain 5% or more benzene.

By far the largest use of benzene is an intermediate to make other chemicals. The most widely produced derivatives of benzene are styrene, which is used to make polymers and plastics phenol for resins and adhesives (via cumene), and cyclohexane, which is used in Nylon manufacture. Smaller amounts of benzene are used to make some types of rubbers, lubricants, dyes, detergents, drugs, explosives and pesticides.

Health effects

Breathing very high levels of benzene can result in death, while high levels can cause drowsiness, dizziness, rapid heart rate, headaches, tremors, confusion, and unconsciousness. Eating or drinking foods containing high levels of benzene can cause vomiting, irritation of the stomach, dizziness, sleepiness, convulsions, rapid heart rate, and death.

The major effect of benzene from long-term (365 days or longer) exposure is on the blood. Benzene causes harmful effects on the bone marrow and can cause a decrease in red blood cells leading to anemia. It can also cause excessive bleeding and can affect the immune system, increasing the chance for infection.

Some women who breathed high levels of benzene for many months had irregular menstrual periods and a decrease in the size of their ovaries. It is not known whether benzene exposure affects the developing fetus in pregnant women or fertility in men.

Animal studies have shown low birth weights, delayed bone formation, and bone marrow damage when pregnant animals breathed benzene.

The US Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) has determined that benzene is a known human carcinogen. Long-term exposure to high levels of benzene in the air can cause leukemia, cancer of the blood-forming organs.

Several tests can show if you have been exposed to benzene. There is test for measuring benzene in the breath; this test must be done shortly after exposure. Benzene can also be measured in the blood; however, since benzene disappears rapidly from the blood, measurements are accurate only for recent exposures.

In the body, benzene is converted to products called metabolites. Certain metabolites can be measured in the urine. However, this test must be done shortly after exposure and is not a reliable indicator of how much benzene you have been exposed to, since the metabolites may be present in urine from other sources.

The US Environmental Protection Agency has set the maximum permissible level of benzene in drinking water at 0.005 milligrams per liter (0.005 mg/L). The EPA requires that spills or accidental releases into the environment of 10 pounds or more of benzene be reported to the EPA.

The US Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set a permissible exposure limit of 1 part of benzene per million parts of air (1 ppm) in the workplace during an 8-hour workday, 40-hour workweek.

External links

References

Archibald Scott Couper, On a New Chemical Theory, Philosophical Magazine 16, 104-116 (1858)

Josef Loschmidt, Chemische Studien I, Carl Gerold's Sohn, Vienna (1861),

Josef Loschmidt, Chemische Studien I, Aldrich Chemical Co, Milwaukee (1989), catalog no. Z-18576-0, and (1913) catalog no. Z-18577-9

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Benzene."

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Butane

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Butane is an alkane hydrocarbon with the empirical formula C4H10.

It is a flammable, colorless, easily liquefied gas that is used extensively as a fuel for cigarette lighters and portable stoves.

Butane exists as two isomers:

n-butane is a fully hydrogenated linear chain of four carbon atoms: CH3CH2CH2CH3. Its boiling point is -0.6 °C and its melting point is -138.3 °C.

i-butane, or isobutane, has the formula CH3CH(CH3)2, and the systematic name 2-methylpropane. Its boiling point is -10.2 °C and its melting point is -159.6 °C.

Recent concerns with depletion of the ozone layer by freon gases have led to increased use of isobutane as a gas for refrigeration systems, especially in domestic refrigerators and freezers. When used as a refrigerant, isobutane is also known as R600a.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Butane."

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C

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

C is the third letter of the Roman alphabet. In the Etruscan language, plosive consonants had no distinctive voicing, so they took over Greek &Gamma (Gamma) to write their /k/. In the beginning, the Romans used C for both /k/ and /g/, only later adding a horizontal bar at right-center to produce G. It is possible but uncertain that C represented only /g/ at an even earlier time, while K might have been used for /k/.

A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z

Some scholars claim that the Semitic ג (gîmel) pictured a camel. /k/ developed palatal and velar allophones in Latin, probably due to Etruscan influence. Therefore, C has many different sound values today, among them /k/ and /s/ in French, /k/ and /T/ (like English TH in THIN) in European Castilian, /T/ in Fijian, /k/ and /tS/ (like English CH) in Italian, /dZ/ in Turkish, Tatar, Azeri; /ts/ in Czech, Esperanto and so on.

Charlie represents the letter C in the NATO phonetic alphabet.

In context, C can also stand for:

See also: Ç, Ĉ, ¢

Two-letter combinations starting with C:

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C programming language

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

C is a free-form programming language developed by Dennis Ritchie, in the early 1970s, from BCPL; for use on the UNIX operating system. C is most widely used language for writing system software; it is also used for writing applications. C is one of the most frequently used programming languages in computer science education. C++ was developed from C.

History

The initial development of C occurred between 1969 and 1973 (according to Ritchie, the most creative period was 1972). It was called "C" because many features derived from an earlier language named B. Accounts differ regarding the origins of B. It may have derived from an earlier language called BCPL, or from another language called Bon, which may or may not have been named after Ken Thompson's wife Bonnie.

By 1973, the C language had become powerful enough that most of the UNIX kernel was reimplemented in C, perhaps following the examples of the Multics system (implemented in PL/I), Tripos (implemented in BCPL), and possibly others. In 1978, Ritchie and Brian Kernighan published The C Programming Language. During the late '70s, C began to replace BASIC as a microcomputer language; eventually being adopted for use with the IBM PC.

The popularity of C increased significantly during the '80s, It was officially standardized, in 1983, by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the International Standards Organization (ISO). In the late 1980s, Bjarne Stroustrup and others at Bell Labs worked to add object-oriented programming language constructs to C. The language they produced with Cfront was called C++ (thus avoiding the issue of whether the successor to "B" and "C" should be "D" or "P".) C++ is now the language most commonly used for commercial applications on the Microsoft Windows operating system, though C remains more popular in the Unix world.

A study of one Linux distribution found that 71% of its 30 million lines of code was C code.

Features

The main features of C are:

The functionality of C is guaranteed by the ANSI/ISO C89/90 and C99 standards documents, which explicitly specify when the compiler (or environment) shall issue diagnostics. The documents also specify what behavior one can expect from C code that conforms to the standard.

For example, the following code, according to the standard, produces undefined behavior (specifically, because the parameters passed to the standard strcpy() function should not overlap).

\r
include \r
include \r
\r
int main (void)\r
{\r
    char *s = "Hello World!\
";\r
\r
    strcpy (s, s+1); /* remove first character from string s --\r
                        s = s+1;\r
                        is probably what the programmer wanted */\r
    return 0;\r
}\r
Note: bracing style varies from programmer to programmer and can be the subject of great debate ("religious wars"). See Indent style for more details.

"Undefined behavior" means that the resulting program can do anything, including (accidentally) working as the programmer intended it to, producing incorrect output, crashing horribly every time it is run, crashing only under certain obscure conditions, etc. The canonical expression among experienced C programmers is that "demons may fly out of your nose" (usually abbreviated to "nasal demons")—i.e., anything can happen.

Some compilers do not adhere to either of the standards in their default mode, which leads to many programs being written which will only compile with a certain version of a certain compiler on a certain platform. Any program written only in standard C will compile unchanged on any platform which has a conforming C implementation.

Although C is usually termed a high level language, this is only in comparison to assembly language; it is significantly lower-level than most other programming languages. In particular, it is up to the programmer to manage the contents of computer memory. C provides no facilities for array bounds checking or automatic garbage collection. C has sometimes been termed "portable assembly language".

Manual memory management provides the programmer with greater leeway in tuning the performance of a program, which is particularly important for programs such as device drivers. However, it also makes it easy to accidentally create code with bugs stemming from erroneous memory operations, such as buffer overflows. Tools have been created to help programmers avoid these errors, including libraries for performing array bounds checking and garbage collection, and the lint source code checker. Intentional exploitation of programs written in C containing potential buffer overruns is often used to break computer security, either manually or by viruses and worms.

Some of the perceived shortcomings of C have been addressed by newer programming languages derived from C. The Cyclone programming language has features to guard against erroneous memory operations. C++ and Objective C provide constructs designed to aid object-oriented programming. Java and C# add object-oriented programming constructs as well as a higher level of abstraction, such as automatic memory management.

Versions of C

K&R C

C evolved continuously from its beginnings in Bell Labs. In 1978, the first edition of Kernighan and Ritchie's The C Programming Language was published. It introduced the following features to the existing versions of C:

For several years, the first edition of The C Programming Language was widely used as a de facto specification of the language. The version of C described in this book is commonly referred to as "K&R C." (The second edition covers the ANSI C standard, described below.)

K&R C is often considered the most basic part of the language that is necessary for a C compiler to support. Since not all of the currently-used compilers have been updated to fully support ANSI C fully, and reasonably well-written K&R C code is also legal ANSI C, K&R C is considered the lowest common denominator that programmers should stick to when maximum portability is desired. For example, the bootstrapping version of the GCC compiler, xgcc, is written in K&R C. This is because many of the platforms supported by GCC did not have an ANSI C compiler when GCC was written, just one supporting K&R C.

However, ANSI C is now supported by almost all the widely used compilers. Most of the C code being written nowadays uses language features that go beyond the original K&R specification.

ANSI C and ISO C

In 1989, C was first officially standardized by ANSI in ANSI X3.159-1989 "Programming Language C". One of the aims of the ANSI C standard process was to produce a superset of K&R C. However, the standards committees also included several new features, more than is normal in programming language standardization.

Some of the new features had been "unofficially" added to the language after the publication of K&R, but before the beginning of the ANSI C process. These included:

Several features were added during the standardization process, most notably function prototypes (borrowed from C++), and a more capable preprocessor.

The ANSI C standard, with a few minor modifications, was adopted as ISO standard number ISO 9899. The first ISO edition of this document was published in 1990 (ISO 9899:1990.)

C99

After the ANSI standardization process, the C language specification remained relatively static for some time, whereas C++ continued to evolve. (Normative Amendment 1 created a new version of the C language in 1995, but this version is rarely acknowledged.) However, the standard underwent revision in the late 1990s, leading to ISO 9899:1999, which was published in 1999. This standard is commonly referred to as "C99". It was adopted as an ANSI standard in March 2000.

The new features added in C99 include:

Interest in supporting the new C99 features is mixed. Whereas GCC and several commercial compilers support most of the new features of C99, the compilers maintained by Microsoft and Borland do not, and these two companies do not seem to be interested in adding such support.

"Hello, World!" in C

The following simple application prints out "Hello, World" to the standard output file (which is usually the screen, but might be a file or some other hardware device). A version of this program appeared for the first time in K&R.

\r
include \r
\r
int main(void)\r
{\r
    printf("Hello, World!\
");\r
    return 0;\r
}\r

Anatomy of a C Program

A C program consists of functions and variables. C functions are like the subroutines and functions of Fortran or the procedures and functions of Pascal. The function main() is special in that a C program always begins executing at the beginning of this function. This means that every C program must have a main() function.

The main() function will usually call other functions to help perform its job, such as printf() in the above example. Functions from the standard library are frequently used. Other libraries can provide extra functionality, such as a graphical interface, advanced mathematical operations, or access to platform-specific features. Any nontrivial program will include its own functions written by the programmer.

A function may return a value to the environment which called it. This is usually another C function. The main() function's calling environment is the operating system. Hence, in the "Hello, world!" example above, the operating system receives a value of 0 when the program terminates.

A C function consists of a return type (void if no value is returned), a unique name, a list of parameters in parentheses (void if there are none) and a function body delimited by braces. The syntax of the function body is equivalent to that of a compound statement.

Control structures

Compound statements

Compound statements in C have the form

  {   }
and are used as the body of a function or anywhere that a single statement is expected.

Expression statements

A statement of the form

   ;
is an expression statement. If the expression is missing, the statement is called a null statement.

Selection statements

C has three types of selection statements: two kinds of if and the switch statement.

The two kinds of if statement are

  if ()
and

  if () 
     
  else
In the if statement, if the expression in parentheses is nonzero or true, control passes to the statement following the if. If the else clause is present, control will pass to the statement following the else clause if the expression in parentheses is zero or false. The two are disambiguated by matching an else to the next previous unmatched if at the same nesting level. Braces may be used to override this or for clarity.

The switch statement causes control to be transferred to one of several statements depending on the value of an expression, which must have integral type. The substatement controlled by a switch is typically compound. Any statement within the substatement may be labeled with one or more case labels, which consist of the keyword case followed by a constant expression and then a colon (:). No two of the case constants associated with the same switch may have the same value. There may be at most one default label associated with a switch; control passes to the default label if none of the case labels are equal to the expression in the parentheses following switch. Switches may be nested; a case or default label is associated with the smallest switch that contains it. Switch statements can "fall-through", that is, when one case section has completed its execution, statements will continue to be executed downward until a break statement is encountered. This may prove useful in certain circumstances, newer programming languages forbid case statements to "fall-through". In the below example, if is reached, the statements are executed and nothing more inside the braces. However if is reached, both and are executed since there is no break to separate the two case statements.

  switch () {
     case  :
        
     case  :
        
        break;
     default :
        
  }

Iteration statements

C has three forms of iteration statement:

  do 
     
  while ();

  while ()
     

  for ( ;  ; )
In the while and do statements, the substatement is executed repeatedly so long as the value of the expression remains nonzero or true. With while, the test, including all side effects from the expression, occurs before each execution of the statement; with do, the test follows each iteration.

If all three expressions are present in a for, the statement

  for (e1; e2; e3)
     s;
is equivalent to

  e1;
  while (e2) {
     s;
     e3;
  }
Any of the three expressions in the for loop may be omitted. A missing second expression makes the while test nonzero, creating an infinite loop.

Jump statements

Jump statements transfer control unconditionally. There are four types of jump statements in C: goto, continue, break, and return.

The goto statement looks like this:

  goto <identifier>;
The identifier must be a label located in the current function. Control transfers to the labeled statement.

A continue statement may appear only within an iteration statement and causes control to pass to the loop-continuation portion of the smallest enclosing such statement. That is, within each of the statements

  while (expression) {
     /* ... */
     cont: ;
  }

  do {
     /* ... */
     cont: ;
  } while (expression);

  for (optional-expr; optexp2; optexp3) {
     /* ... */
     cont: ;
  }
a continue not contained within a nested iteration statement is the same as goto cont.

The break statement is used to get out of a for loop, while loop, do loop, or switch statement. Control passes to the statement following the terminated statement.

A function returns to its caller by the return statement. When return is followed by an expression, the value is returned to the caller of the function. Flowing off the end of the function is equivalent to a return with no expression. In either case, the returned value is undefined.

Operator precedence in C89

     () [] -> . ++ -- (cast)     postfix operators
     ++ -- * & ~ ! + - sizeof    unary operators
     * / %                       multiplicative operators
     + -                         additive operators
     << >>                       shift operators
     <  <=  >  >=                relational operators
     == !=                       equality operators
     &                           bitwise and
     ^                           bitwise exclusive or
     |                           bitwise inclusive or
     &&                          logical and
     ||                          logical or
     ?:                          conditional operator
     = += -= *= /= %= <<= >>=
         &= |= ^=                assignment operators 
     ,                           comma operator

Data declaration

Elementary data types

The values in the <limits.h> and <float.h> headers determine the ranges of the fundamental data types. The ranges of the float, double, and long double types are typically those mentioned in the IEEE 754 Standard.

name minimum range
char -127..127 or 0..255
unsigned char 0..255
signed char -127..127
int -32767..32767
short int -32767..32767
long int -2147483647..2147483647
float 1e-37..1e+37 (positive range)
double 1e-37..1e+37 (positive range)
long double 1e-37..1e+37 (positive range)

Arrays

If a declaration is suffixed by a number in square brackets ([]), the declaration is said to be an array declaration. Strings are just character arrays. They are terminated by a character zero (represented in C by '\\0', the null character).

Examples: 

   int myvector [100];
   char mystring [80]; 
   float mymatrix [3] [2] = {2.0 , 10.0, 20.0, 123.0, 1.0, 1.0}
   char lexicon  [10000] [300] ;  /* 10000 entries with max 300 chars each. */
   int a[3][4];
The last example above creates an array of arrays, but can be thought of as a multidimensional array for most purposes. The 12 int values created could be accessed as follows:

a[0][0] a[0][1] a[0][2] a[0][3]
a[1][0] a[1][1] a[1][2] a[1][3]
a[2][0] a[2][1] a[2][2] a[2][3]

Pointers

If a variable has an asterisk (*) in its declaration it is said to be a pointer.

Examples: 

   int *pi; /* pointer to int */
   int *api[3]; /* array of 3 pointers to int */
   char **argv; /* pointer to pointer to char */
The value at the address stored in a pointer variable can then be accessed in the program with an asterisk. For example, given the first example declaration above, *pi is an int. This is called "dereferencing" a pointer.

Another operator, the & (ampersand), called the address-of operator, returns the address of variable, array, or function. Thus, given the following

  int i, *pi; /* int and pointer to int */
  pi = &i;
i and *pi could be used interchangeably (at least until pi is set to something else).

Strings

Strings may be manipulated without using the standard library. However, the library contains many useful functions for working with both zero-terminated strings and unterminated arrays of char.

The most commonly used string functions are:

The less important string functions are:

File Input / Output

In C, input and output are performed via a group of functions in the standard library. In ANSI/ISO C, those functions are defined in the <stdio.h> header.

Standard I/O

Three standard I/O streams are predefined: These streams are automatically opened and closed by the runtime environment, they need not and should not be opened explicitly.

The following example demonstrates how a filter program is typically structured:

\r
include \r
\r
int main()\r
{\r
   int c;\r
\r
   while (( c = getchar()) != EOF ) {\r
         /* do various things \r
            to the characters */\r
\r
          if (anErrorOccurs) {\r
              fputs("an error eee occurred\
", stderr);\r
              break;\r
          }\r
\r
         /* ... */\r
         putchar(c);\r
         /* ... */\r
\r
    }\r
    return 0;\r
}\r

Passing command line arguments

The parameters given on a command line are passed to a C program with two predefined variables - the count of the command line arguments in argc and the individual arguments as character arrays in the pointer array argv. So the command 

 myFilt p1 p2 p3
results in something like

(Note: there is no guarantee that the individual strings are contiguous.)

The individual values of the parameters may be accessed with argv[1], argv[2], and argv[3].

The C Library

Many features of the C language are provided by the standard C library. A "hosted" implementation provides all of the C library. (Most implementations are hosted, but some, not intended to be used with an operating system, aren't.) Access to library features is achieved by including standard headers via the #include preprocessing directive.

See C library, C standard library (ANSI C standard library), GNU Compiler Collection.

References

External links

This article (or an earlier version of it) contains material from FOLDOC, used with permission.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "C programming language."

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Capacitor

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

A capacitor (formerly known as a "condenser") is a device that stores electric charge, or, more accurately, consists of two plates which each store an opposite charge. These two plates are conductive and separated by an insulator or dielectric. The charge is stored on the inside of the plates, at the boundary with the dielectric.

The capacitor's capacitance (C) is a measure of how much voltage (V) appears across the plates for a given charge (Q) stored in it:

The above equation is only accurate for values of Q which are much larger than the electron charge e = 1.602·10-19 C. For example, if a capacitance of 1 pF is charged to a voltage of 1 µV, the equation would predict a charge Q = 10-19 C, but this is impossible as it is smaller than the charge on a single electron. However, recent experiments and theories (e.g. the fractional quantum Hall (FQH) effect) have suggested the existence of fractional charges.

A capacitor has a capacitance of one farad when one coulomb of charge causes a potential difference of one volt across the plates. Since the farad is a very large unit, values of capacitors are usually expressed in microfarads (μF), nanofarads (nF) or picofarads (pF).

When the voltage across a capacitor changes, the capacitor will be charged or discharged. The associated current is given by

where i is the current flowing in the conventional direction, and dV/dt is the time derivative of voltage.

The energy (in joules) stored in a capacitor is given by:

Moving a charge Q across a potential difference of V requires an energy QV; here the charge is CV but the energy is not CV², but less (in fact half of that) because while charging the potential difference is not yet equal to the final value; therefore (simple) integration is required to find the formula above.

The capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor is approximately equal to the following:

where C is the capacitance in farads, ε0 is the electrostatic permittivity of vacuum or free space, εr is the dielectric constant or relative permittivity of the insulator used, A is the area of the each of the two plates, and D is the distance between the plates.

In a tuned circuit such as a radio receiver, the frequency selected is a function of the inductance (L) and the capacitance (C) in series, and is given by

This is the frequency at which resonance occurs in a RLC series circuit.

Electrons cannot pass from one plate of the capacitor to the other. When a voltage is applied to a capacitor, current flows to one plate, charging it, while flowing away from the other plate, charging it oppositely. In the case of a constant voltage (DC) soon an equilibrium is reached, where the charge of the plates corresponds with the applied voltage, and no further current will flow in the circuit. Therefore direct current cannot pass. However, effectively alternating current (AC) can: every change of the voltage gives rise to a further charging or a discharging of the plates and therefore a current. The amount of "resistance" of a capacitor to AC is known as capacitive reactance, and varies depending on the AC frequency. Capacitive reactance is given by this formula:

where: It is called reactance because the capacitor reacts to changes in the voltage.

Thus the reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency. Since DC has a frequency of zero, the formula confirms that capacitors completely block direct current. For high-frequency alternating currents the reactance is small enough to be considered as zero in approximate analyses.

The impedance of a capacitor is given by:

where j is the imaginary number.

Hence, capacitive reactance is the negative imaginary component of impedance.

Practical capacitors

Capacitors are often classified according to the material used as the dielectric. The following types of dielectric are used.

Important properties of capacitors, apart from the capacitance, are the maximum working voltage and the amount of energy lost in the dielectric. For high-power capacitors the maximum ripple current and equivalent series resistance (ESR) are further considerations. A typical ESR for most capacitors is between 0.0001 and 0.01 ohm, low values being preferred for high-current applications.

Since capacitors have such a low resistance, they have the capacity to deliver huge currents into short circuits, which can be dangerous. For safety purposes, all large capacitors should be discharged before handling. This is done by placing a small 1 to 10 ohm resistor across the terminals, i.e. shorting through a resistance.

Capacitors can be fabricated in semiconductor integrated circuit devices using metal lines and insulators on a substrate. Such capacitors are used to store analogue signals in switched-capacitor filters, and to store digital data in dynamic random-access memory (DRAM).

Variable capacitors

There are two distinct types of variable capacitors.

History

The Leyden jar, the first form of capacitor, was invented at Leiden University in the Netherlands. It was a glass jar coated inside and out with metal. The inner coating was connected to a rod that passed through the lid and ended in a metal ball.

See also: electricity, electronics, inductor.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Capacitor."

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Carbon

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Boron - Carbon - Nitrogen
 
C
Si  
 
 

Full table
General
Name, Symbol, NumberCarbon, C, 6
Chemical series Nonmetals
Group, Period, Block14 (IVA), 2 , p
Density, Hardness 2267 kg/m3,
0.5 (graphite)
10.0 (diamond)
Appearance black (graphite)
colourless (diamond)
Atomic
Atomic weight 12.0107 amu
Atomic radius (calc.) 70 (67)pm
Covalent radius 77 pm
van der Waals radius 170 pm
Electron configuration [He]22s22p2
e- 's per energy level2, 4
Oxidation states (Oxide) 4, 2 (mildly acidic)
Crystal structure Hexagonal
Physical
State of matter solid (nonmagnetic)
Melting point 3773 K (6332 °F)
Boiling point 5100 K (8721 °F)
Molar volume 5.29 ×1010-6 m3/mol
Heat of vaporization 355.8 kJ/mol (sublimes)
Heat of fusion N/A (sublimes)
Vapor pressure 0 Pa
Speed of sound 18350 m/s
Miscellaneous
Electronegativity 2.55 (Pauling scale)
Specific heat capacity 710 J/(kg*K)
Electrical conductivity 0.061 × 106/m ohm
Thermal conductivity 129 W/(m*K)
1st ionization potential 1086.5 kJ/mol
2nd ionization potential 2352.6 kJ/mol
3rd ionization potential 4620.5 kJ/mol
4th ionization potential 6222.7 kJ/mol
5th ionization potential 37831 kJ/mol
6th ionization potential 47277.0 kJ/mol
Most Stable Isotopes
isoNAhalf-life DMDE MeVDP
12C98.9%C is stable with 6 neutrons
13C1.1%C is stable with 7 neutrons
14Ctrace5730 ybeta-0.15614N
SI units & STP are used except where noted.
Alternate meaning: Carbon (computing)

Carbon is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol C and atomic number 6. An abundant nonmetallic, tetravalent element, carbon has three (or four) allotropic forms:

Carbon occurs in all organic life and is the basis of organic chemistry. This nonmetal also has the interesting chemical property of being able to bond with itself and a wide variety of other elements (making more than 10 million compounds). When united with oxygen it forms carbon dioxide which is absolutely vital to plant growth. When united with hydrogen, it forms various compounds called hydrocarbons which are essential to industry in the form of fossil fuels. When combined with both oxygen and hydrogen it can form many groups of compounds including fatty acids, which are essential to life, and esters, which give flavour to many fruits. The isotope carbon-14 is commonly used in radioactive dating.

Notable Characteristics

Carbon is a remarkable element for many reasons. Its different forms include one of the softest (graphite) and one of the hardest (diamond) substances known to man. Moreover, it has a great affinity for bondinging with other small atoms, including other carbon atoms, and its small size makes it capable of forming multiple bonds. These properties yield nearly ten million carbon compounds. Carbon compounds form the basis of all life on Earth and the carbon-nitrogen cycle provides some of the energy produced by the sun and other stars.

Carbon was not created in the big bang due to the fact that it needs a triple collision of alpha particles (helium nuclei) to be produced. The universe initially expanded and cooled too fast for that to be possible. It is produced, however, in the interior of stars in the horizontal branch, where stars transform a helium core into carbon by means of the triple-alpha process.

Applications

Carbon is a vital component of all known living systems, and without it life as we know it could not exist (see carbon chauvinism). The major economic use of carbon is in the form of hydrocarbons, most notably the fossil fuels methane gas and crude oil. Crude oil is used by the petrochemical industry to produce, amongst others, petroleum, gasoline and kerosene, through a distillation process, in so-called refineries. Crude oil forms the raw material for many synthetical substances, many of which are collectively called plastics.

Other uses:

The isotope 14C discovered February 27th 1940 is used in radiocarbon dating
  • Graphite is used as the "lead" in pencils, in combination with clays.
  • Diamonds are used for decorative purposes, and also as drill bits and other applications making use of its hardness.
  • Carbon is added to iron to make steel.
  • Carbon is used for control rods in nuclear reactors.
  • Graphite carbon in a powdered, caked form is used as charcoal for cooking, artwork and other uses.

    • The chemical and structural properties of fullerenes, in the form of carbon nanotubes, has promising potential uses in the nascent field of nanotechnology.

    History

    Carbon (Latin carbo meaning "charcoal") was discovered in prehistory and was known to the ancients, who manufactured it by burning organic material in insufficient oxygen (making charcoal). Diamonds have long been considered rare and beautiful. The last-known allotrope of carbon, fullerenes, were discovered as byproducts of molecular beam experiments in the 1980's. 

    Allotropes
     
    
Four allotropes of carbon are known to exist: amorphous, graphite, diamond and fullerenes.
    
In its amorphous form, carbon is essentially graphite but not held in a crystalline macrostructure.  It is, rather, present as a powder which is the main constituent of substances such as charcoal and lamp black (soot).
    
At normal pressures carbon takes the form of graphite, in which each atom is bonded to three others in a plane composed of fused hexagonal rings, just like those in aromatic hydrocarbons.  The two known forms of graphite, alpha (hexagonal) and beta (rhombohedral), both have identical physical properties, except for their crystal structure. Graphites that naturally occur have been found to contain up to 30% of the beta form, when synthetically-produced graphite only contains the alpha form. The alpha form can be converted to the beta form through mechanical treatment and the beta form reverts back to the alpha form when it is heated above 1000 °C.  
    
Because of the delocalization of the pi-cloud, graphite conducts electricity. The material is soft and the sheets, frequently separated by other atoms, are held together only by van der Waals forces, so easily slip past one another.   
    
At very high pressures carbon has an allotrope called diamond, in which each atom is bonded to four others. Diamond has the same cubic structure as silicon and germanium and, thanks to the strength of the carbon-carbon bondss, is together with the isoelectronic boron nitride (BN) the hardest substance in terms of resistance to scratching. The transition to graphite at room temperature is so slow as to be unnoticeable. Under some conditions, carbon crystallizes as Lonsdaleite, a form similar to diamond but hexagonal.  
    
Fullerenes have a graphite-like structure, but instead of purely hexagonal packing, also contain pentagons (or possibly heptagons) of carbon atoms, which bend the sheet into spheres, ellipses or cylinders.  The properties of fullerenes (also called "buckyballs" and "buckytubes") have not yet been fully analyzed. All the names of fullerenes are after Buckminster Fuller, developer of the geodesic dome, which mimics the structure of "buckyballs".
    

    Occurrence
     
    
There are nearly ten million carbon compounds that are known to science and many thousands of these are vital to life processes and very economically important organic-based reactions. This element is abundant in the sun, stars, comets, and in the atmospheress of most planets. Some meteorites contain microscopic diamonds that were formed when the solar system was still a protoplanetary disk. In combination with other elements, carbon is found the earth's atmosphere and dissolved in all bodies of water. With smaller amounts of calcium, magnesium, and iron, it is a major component of very large masses carbonate rock (limestone, dolomite, marble etc.). When combined with hydrogen, carbon form coal, petroleum, and natural gas which are called hydrocarbons.  
    
Graphite is found in large quantities in New York and Texas, the United States; Russia; Mexico; Greenland and India. 
    
Natural diamonds occur in the mineral kimberlite found in ancient volcanic "necks," or "pipes".  Most diamond deposits are in Africa, notably in South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, the Republic of the Congo and Sierra Leone.  There are also  deposits in Canada, the Russian Arctic, Brazil and in Northern and Western Australia. 
    

    Inorganic compounds
    

    (see also organic chemistry) 
    
The most prominent oxide of carbon is carbon dioxide, CO2. This is a minor component of the Earth's atmosphere, produced and used by living things, and a common volatile elsewhere. In water it forms trace amounts of carbonic acid, H2CO3, but as most compounds with multiple single-bonded oxygens on a single carbon it is unstable. Through this intermediate, though, resonance-stabilized carbonate ions are produced. Some important minerals are carbonates, notably calcite. Carbon disulfide, CS2, is similar. 
    
The other oxides are carbon monoxide, CO, and the uncommon carbon suboxide, C3O2. Carbon monoxide is formed by incomplete combustion, and is a colorless, odorless gas. The molecules each contain a triple bond and are fairly polar, resulting in a tendency to bind permanently to hemoglobin molecules, so that the gas is highly poisonous. Cyanide, CN-, has a similar structure and behaves a lot like a halide ion; the nitride cyanogen, (CN)2, is related. 
    
With strong metals carbon forms either carbides, C-, or acetylides, C22-; these are associated with methane and acetylene, both incredibly pathetic acids. All in all, with an electronegativity of 2.5, carbon prefers to form covalent bonds. A few carbides are covalent lattices, like carborundum, SiC, which resembles diamond.
    

    Carbon chain
    
It´s the atomic structure of hydrocarbons in which a series of carbon atoms, saturated by hydrogen atoms, form a chain. Volatile oils have shorter chains. Fats have longer chain lengths, and waxes have extremely long chains..
    

    Carbon cycle
    
The continuous process of combining and releasing carbon and oxygen thereby storing and emitting heat and energy. Catabolism + anabolism = metabolism. See carbon cycle.
    

    Isotopes
     
    
In 1961 the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry adopted the isotope carbon-12 for basis for atomic weights. Carbon-14 is a radioisotope with a half-life of 5715 years and has been used extensively for radiocarbon dating wood, archaeological sites and specimens.  
    
Carbon has two stable, naturally-occurring isotopes: C-12 (98.89%) and C-13 (1.11%). Ratios of these isotopes are reported in ? relative to the standard VPDB (Vienna Pee Dee Belemnite from the Peedee Formation of South Carolina). The dCC-13 of the atmosphere is -7?. During photosynthesis, the carbon that becomes fixed in plant tissue is significantly depleted in C-13 relative to the atmosphere.  
    
There is two mode distribution in the dC-13 values of terrestrial plants resulting from differences in the photosynthetic reaction used by the plant. Most terrestrial plants are C3 pathway plants and have dC-13 values range from -24 to -34?. A second category of plants (C4 pathway plants), composed of aquatic plants, desert plants, salt marsh plants, and tropical grasses, have dC-13 values that range from -6 to -19. An intermediate group (CAM plants) composed of algae and lichens has dC-13 values range from -12 to -23?. The dC-13 of plants and organisms can provide useful information about sources of nutrients and food web relations.
    

    Precautions
     
    
Compounds of carbon have a wide range of toxic action. Carbon monoxide (CO), which is present in the exhaust of combustion engines,  and cyanide (CN-), which is sometimes in mining pollution, are extremely toxic to mammals. Many other carbon compounds are not toxic and are in fact absolutely essential for life. Organic gases such as ethene (CH2=CH2), ethyne (HCCH), and  methane (CH4) are dangerously explosive and flammable when mixed with air. 
    

    External Links
    

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    Celsius
    (From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
    
The degree Celsius (°C) is a unit of temperature named for the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius (1701-1744), who first proposed it in 1742. The Celsius temperature scale was designed so that the freezing point of water is 0 degrees, and the boiling point is 100 degrees at standard atmospheric pressure.
    
Since there are one hundred graduations between these two reference points, the original term for this system was centigrade (100 parts).  In 1948 the system's name was officially changed to Celsius by the 9th General Conference on Weights and Measures, both in recognition of Celsius himself and to eliminate confusion caused by conflict with the SI (metric) use of the centi- prefix.
    
While the values for freezing and boiling of water remain approximately correct, the original definition is unsuitable as a formal standard: it depends on the  definition of standard atmospheric pressure which in turn depends on the definition of temperature.  The current official definition of the Celsius sets 0.01°C to be at the triple point of water and a degree to be one 1/273.16 the difference in temperature between the triple point of water and absolute zero.  This definition ensures that one degree Celsius represents the same temperature difference as one kelvin.
    
Anders Celsius originally proposed that the freezing point should be 100 degrees and that the boiling point should be 0 degrees. This was reversed, possibly at the instigation of Carl von Linné or Daniel Ekström, the manufacturer of most of the thermometers used by Celsius. 
    
To convert Celsius to Fahrenheit: multiply the Celsius temperature by 1.8 and add 32 degrees. 

    F = 1.8 C + 32

    To convert Fahrenheit to Celsius: subtract 32 degrees from the Fahrenheit temperature and divide the quantity by 1.8. 

    C = (F - 32) / 1.8.
    

    A temperature of -40 degrees is the same for Celsius and Fahrenheit. Correspondingly, another method for converting Celsius to Fahrenheit is to add 40, multiply by 1.8, and subtract 40. Similarly, to convert Fahrenheit to Celsius add 40, divide by 1.8, and subtract 40. 
    
The Celsius scale is used throughout most of the world for day-to-day purposes, though in broadcast media it was still frequently referred to as centigrade until the late 1980s or early 1990s, particularly by weather forecasters on European networks such as the BBC, ITV, and RTÉ. United States media still exclusively use the Fahrenheit scale for temperatures, which might puzzle European viewers watching US television. Having not experienced Fahrenheit for decades, many have little comprehension of how 'extreme' the weather is that's being described.
    
Other temperature scales include Fahrenheit (1724), Réaumur (1730), Rømer (1730+), Kelvin (1862), and Rankine (ca. 1860). The kelvin is the official SI (metric) temperature unit.
    

    External links
    

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    Centerpartiet
    (From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
    The Center Party or Centerpartiet is a political party in Sweden. The party maintains close ties to rural Sweden. The main concerns of the Center Party are the elimination of nuclear power and decentralization of governmental authority.
    

    Party leaders
    
See also: Prime Minister of Sweden, Government of Sweden, Parliament of Sweden, Elections in Sweden
    

    References
    

    External links
    

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    Commonwealth of Nations
    (From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
    
The Commonwealth of Nations is a voluntary association of independent sovereign states formed mostly by the United Kingdom and most of its former colonies. It was formerly known as the British Commonwealth, and many still call it by that name, either mistakenly or to distinguish it from the many other commonwealths around the world. 
    

    Origins and membership
    
The Commonwealth is the successor of the British Empire and has its origins in the Imperial Conference of the late 1920s (conferences of British and colonial prime ministers had occurred periodically since 1887), where the independence of the self-governing colonies or dominions was recognised, and eventually formalised by the 1931 Statute of Westminster. The Commonwealth was established as an association of free and equal states, and membership was based on common allegiance to the British Crown.
    
After World War II the Empire was gradually dismantled, partly owing to the rise of independence movements in the then subject territories (most importantly in India under the influence of the pacifist Mohandas Gandhi), and partly owing to the British Government's straitened circumstances resulting from the cost of the war. Burma (now Myanmar) (1948) and South Yemen (1967) are among the only former colonies that did not join the Commonwealth on independence. Ireland was a member but left the Commonwealth upon becoming a republic in 1949. 
    
The issue of republican status within the Commonwealth was only resolved in 1950 (after Ireland's decision) when it was agreed that India should remain a Commonwealth member despite adopting her present republican constitution.1 This decision, known as the London Declaration, by which all members accepted the British monarch as head of the Commonwealth regardless of their domestic constitutional arrangements, is now considered the start of the modern Commonwealth. 
    
Citizens of Commonwealth nations make up 30% of the world's population: India is the most populous member, with a billion people at the 2001 census, while Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nigeria each contain more than 100 million people: Tuvalu, in contrast, has only 11,000 inhabitants. 
    
Membership is normally open to countries which accept the association's basic aims.  Members are required to have a present or past constitutional link to the UK or to another Commonwealth member. Not all members have close ties to the UK: some South Pacific countries were formerly under Australian administration, while Namibia was governed by South Africa from 1920 until independence in 1990. Cameroon joined in 1995 although only a fraction of its territory had formerly been under British administration through the (League of Nations mandate of 1920-46 and United Nations Trusteeship arrangement of 1946-61). 
    
One member of the present Commonwealth was never attached to the British Empire or any Commonwealth member: Mozambique applied for and received membership in 1995 on the back of the triumphal re-admission of South Africa, with support from Mozambique's neighbours, all of whom were members of the Commonwealth and who wished to offer assistance in overcoming the losses incurred as a result of the country's opposition to white minority regimes in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) and South Africa. In 1997, amid some discontent, Commonwealth Heads of Government agreed that Mozambique's admission should be seen as a special case and should not set any precedents.
    
Fiji and Pakistan have had their membership suspended in recent years because of military coups removing democratic regimes. South Africa's membership was effectively suspended during the Apartheid era (South Africa actually withdrew of its own accord by not seeking re-admission after it became a republic in 1961), but was reinstated upon the establishment of majority rule in 1994. Nigeria was suspended between 1995 and 1999. Pakistan had earlier left on January 30, 1972 in protest at Commonwealth recognition of breakaway Bangladesh, but rejoined in 1989. Zimbabwe was suspended in 2002 over concerns with the electoral and land reform policies of Robert Mugabe's Zanu-PF government. Charles de Gaulle once suggested that France, though it was never a member of the British Empire (even if for centuries English/British monarchs claimed the title 'King of France') should apply for Commonwealth membership.  This never happened.
    

    Organization and objectives
    
Queen Elizabeth II is the nominal head of the organization, but in practice it is served (since 1965) by a London-based Secretariat. The current (2003) Secretary General is Don McKinnon of New Zealand. 
    
Heads of state or government of the Commonwealth countries meet biennally at the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM). This was to have been held in Brisbane, Australia, in October 2001, but was postponed until March 2002 due to the uncertainty in international affairs engendered by the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001.
    
The Commonwealth has long been distinctive as an international forum where highly developed economies (the UK, Canada, Australia, New Zealand) and many of the world's poorer countries seek to reach agreement by consensus. This aim has sometimes been difficult to achieve, as when disagreements over Rhodesia in the 1970s and over apartheid South Africa in the 1980s led to a cooling of relations between Britain and African members. 
    
With the mutual decline of interest in each other as former British colonies forge closer relationships with non-Commonwealth trading partners and close geographic neighbours, the Commonwealth's direct political and economic importance has declined. 
    
The Commonwealth today mainly restricts itself to encouraging community between nations and to placing moral pressure on members who violate international laws, such as human rights laws, and abandon democratically elected government. Key activities today include training experts in developing countries and assisting with and monitoring elections. 
    
It is also useful as an international organisation that represents significant cultural and historical links between wealthy first-world countries and poorer developing nations with diverse social and religious backgrounds. The common inheritance of the English language and literature, the common law and British systems of administration underpin the club-like atmosphere of the Commonwealth.
    
The Commonwealth countries share many links at non-governmental level, notably sporting and cultural links. A multi-sport championship called the Commonwealth Games is held every four years: as well as the usual athletic disciplines the Games include sports popular throughout the Commonwealth such as bowls. 
    
In recent years the Commonwealth model has inspired similar initiatives on the part of France and Portugal and their respective ex-colonies, and in the former case, other sympathetic governments: the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie and the Comunidade dos Países de Língua Portuguesa (Community of Portuguese-speaking countries). 
    

    List of Commonwealth Members by continent
    
Date of membership in (parentheses).
    

    

Currently suspended members:

Former Members:

    Footnote
    
1 Technically, on becoming a republic, states formally leave the Commonwealth. They have to re-apply for admittance, which is nowadays normally granted automatically. The Republic of Ireland did not apply for re-admittance as the Commonwealth at the time as the Commonwealth did not allow republican membership. However then Leader of the Opposition Eamon de Valera believed Ireland's decision not to apply to stay was a mistake. He and his successor as taoiseach, Sean Lemass both considered re-applying. Eamon Ó Cuiv, a minister in the present Irish Government (and himself de Valera's grandson) raised the issue of Ireland re-applying a number of times in the 1990s. However, the issue arouses hostility in Ireland, as the Commonwealth is still associated with British imperialism, even though the majority of member states are now republics.
    
See also: dominion, British Empire, Anglosphere
    

    External links
    

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    Coulomb
    (From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
    
The coulomb, symbol C, is the SI unit of electric charge, and is defined in terms of the ampere: 1 coulomb is the amount of electric charge carried by a current of 1 ampere flowing for 1 second.  It is also about 6.24×1018 times the charge on an electron.  It is named after Charles-Augustin de Coulomb (1736 - 1806).
    
See also:

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    C-star-algebra
    (From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
    C*-algebras are studied in functional analysis and are used in some formulations of quantum mechanics. A C*-algebra A is a Banach algebra over the field of complex numbers, together with a map * : A -> A called involution which has the following properties:
C* algebras are also * algebras.
If the last property is omitted, we speak of a B*-algebra.
    

    *-Homormorphisms and *-Isomorphisms
    
A map f : A -> B between B*-algebras A and B is called a *-homomorphism if

    Such a map f is automatically continuous. If f is bijective, then its inverse is also a *-homorphism and f is called a *-isomorphism and A and B are called *-isomorphic. In that case, A and B are for all practical purposes identical; they only differ in the notation of their elements.
    

    Examples of C*-algebras
    
The algebra of n-by-n matrices over C becomes a C*-algebra if we use the matrix norm ||.||2 arising as the operator norm from the Euclidean norm on Cn. The involution is given by the conjugate transpose.
    
The motivating example of a C*-algebra is the algebra of continuous linear operators defined on a complex Hilbert space H; here x* denotes the adjoint operator of the operator x : H -> H. In fact, every C*-algebra is *-isomorphic to a closed subalgebra of such an operator algebra for a suitable Hilbert space H; this is the content of the Gelfand-Naimark theorem.
    
An example of a commutative C*-algebra is the algebra C(X) of all complex-valued continuous functions defined on a compact Hausdorff space X. Here the norm of a function is the supremum of its absolute value, and the star operation is complex conjugation. Every commutative C*-algebra with unit element is *-isomorphic to such an algebra C(X) using the Gelfand representation.
    
If one starts with a locally compact Hausdorff space X and considers the complex-valued continuous functions on X that vanish at infinity (defined in the article on local compactness), then these form a commutative C*-algebra C0(X); if X is not compact, then C0(X) does not have a unit element. Again, the Gelfand representation shows that every commutative C*-algebra is *-isomorphic to an algebra of the form C0(X).
    

    W* algebras
    
W* algebras are a special kind of C* algebra.
    

    C*-algebras and quantum field theory
    
In quantum field theory, one typically describes a physical system with a C*-algebra A with unit element; the self-adjoint elements of A (elements x with x* = x) are thought of as the observables, the measurable quantities, of the system. A state of the system is defined as a positive functional on A (a C-linear map φ : A -> C with φ(u u*) > 0 for all u∈A) such that φ(1) = 1. The expected value of the observable x, if the system is in state φ, is then φ(x).
    
See Local quantum physics.

See also algebra, associative algebra, * algebra, B* algebra.
    Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "C-star-algebra."
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    Ethylene
    (From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
    

    
Ethylene or ethene is the simplest alkene hydrocarbon, consisting of two carbon atoms and four hydrogens.  There is a double bond between the two carbons.  Because it contains a double bond, ethylene is called an unsaturated hydrocarbon or an olefin.
    
The molecule cannot rotate around the double bond, and all six atoms lie in the same plane.  The angle made by two carbon-hydrogen bonds in the molecule is 117°, very close to the 120° that would be predicted from ideal sp2 hybridization.  
    

    Nomenclature
    
From 1795 on, ethylene was referred to as the olefiant gas (oil-making gas), because it combined with chlorine to produce the oil of the Dutch chemists (1,2-dichloroethane), first synthesized in 1795 by a collaboration of four Dutch chemists.
    
In the mid-19th century, the suffix -ene (a Greek root added to the end of female names meaning "daughter of") was widely used to refer to a molecule or part thereof that contained one fewer hydrogen atoms than the word being modified.  Thus, ethylene (C2H4) was the "daughter of ethyl" (C2H5).  The name ethylene was used in this sense as early as 1852.
    
In 1866, the German chemist Augustus von Hofmann proposed a system of hydrocarbon nomenclature in which the suffixes -ane, -ene-, -ine, -one, and -une were used to denote the hydrocarbons with 0, 2, 4, 6, and 8 fewer hydogens than their parent alkane.  In this system, ethylene became ethene.  Hofmann's system eventually became the basis for the Geneva nomenclature approved by the International Congress of Chemists in 1892, which remains at the core of the IUPAC nomenclature.  However, by that time, the name ethylene was deeply entrenched, and it remains in wide use today, especially in the chemical industry.
    

    Chemistry
    
The double bond is a region of slightly higher electron density, and most of ethylene's chemistry involves other molecules reacting with and adding across its double bond.  Ethylene can react with bromine, chlorine, and other halogens, to produce halogenated hydrocarbons.  It can also react with water to produce ethanol but the rate at which this happens is very slow unless a suitable catalyst, such as phosphoric or sulfuric acid, is used.  In the presence of metals including platinum, rhodium, or nickel, hydrogen gas reacts a high pressure to saturate ethylene to ethane.
    

    Production
    
Ethylene is produced in the petrochemical industry via steam cracking.  In this process, gaseous or light liquid hydrocarbons are briefly heated to 750-950°C, causing numerous free radical reactions to take place.  Generally, in the course of these reactions, large hydrocarbons break down in to smaller ones and saturated hydrocarbons become unsaturated.
    
The result of this process is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons in which ethylene is one of the principal components.  The mixture is separated by repeated compression and distillation.
    

    Uses
    
Ethylene is used primarily as an intermediate in the manufacture of other chemicals, especially plastics.  Ethylene may be polymerized directly to produce polyethylene (also called polyethene or polythene), the world's most widely used plastic.  Ethylene can be chlorinated to produce 1,2-dichloroethane, a precursor to the plastic polyvinyl chloride, or combined with benzene to produce ethylbenzene, which is used in the manufacture of polystyrene, another important plastic.
    
Smaller amounts of ethylene are oxidized to produce chemicals including ethylene oxide, ethanol, and vinyl acetate.
    
Ethylene was once used as an inhaled anesthetic, but it has long since been replaced in this role by nonflammable gases.  Small amounts of ethylene are used in agriculture to bring about the ripening of already-picked fruit.
    
Ethylene is a plant hormone. It stimulates the ripening of fruit, the opening of flowers, and the abscission of leaves.
    Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Ethylene."
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    Ethylene oxide
    (From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
    

    

     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
    
Properties

    

    
General
    

    		

    
Name
 Ethylene oxide

    
Chemical formula
 C2H4O

    
Appearance
 Colorless gas

    

    
Physical
    

    		

    
Formula weight
 44.1 amu

    
Melting point
 161 K (-112 °C)

    
Boiling point
 284 K (11 °C)

    
Density
 0.82 ×103 kg/m3 (liquid)

    
Solubility
 miscible with water

    

    
Thermochemistry
    

    		

    
ΔfH0gas
 ? kJ/mol

    
ΔfH0liquid
 ? kJ/mol

    
ΔfH0solid
 ? kJ/mol

    
S0gas, 1 bar
 ? J/mol·K

    
S0liquid, 1 bar
 ? J/mol·K

    
S0solid
 ? J/mol·K

    

    
Safety
    

    
Ingestion
 May cause nausea, vomiting.

    
Inhalation
 Usually irritates mucous membranes. Delayed pulmonary edema or pneumonia possible.

    
Skin
 May cause skin irritation, frostbite.  Can be absorbed through skin, with harmful or fatal results.

    
Eyes
 May cause severe irritation or injury, frostbite.

    
More info
 Hazardous Chemical Database

    

 
   SI units were used where possible. Unless otherwise stated, standard conditions were used.
   
    Disclaimer and references
 
 
    

    
The chemical compound ethylene oxide is an important industrial chemical used as an intermediate in the production of ethylene glycol and other chemicals, and as a sterliant for foodstuffs and medical supplies.  It is a colorless flammable gas or refrigerated liquid with a faintly sweet odor.
    
Its IUPAC name is 1,2-epoxyethane.  Other names for it include oxirane and dimethylene oxide.
    

    History
    
Ethylene oxide was first prepared in 1859 by the French chemist Charles Wurtz, who prepared it by treating 2-chloroethanol with a base.  It achieved industrial importance during World War I as a precursor to both the coolant ethylene glycol and the chemical weapon mustard gas.  In 1931, Theodore Lefort, another French chemist, discovered a means to prepare ethylene oxide directly from ethylene and oxygen, using silver as a catalyst.  Since 1940, almost all ethylene oxide produced industrially has been made using this method.
    

    Production
    
Industrially, ethylene oxide is produced when ethylene and oxygen react on a silver catalyst at 200-300°C.  The chemical equation for this reaction is
    

    CH2=CH2 + ½ O2 → C2H4O
    

    The typical yield for this reaction is 70-80%, the major side reaction being combustion of ethylene to produce carbon dioxide.  Several methods to produce ethylene oxide more selectively have been proposed, but none have achieved industrial importance.
    

    Uses
    
Ethylene oxide gas kills bacteria, mold, and fungi, and can therefore be used to sterilize substances that would be damaged by sterilizing techniques such as pasteurization that rely on heat.  Ethylene oxide sterilization for the preservation of spices was patented in 1938 by the American chemist Lloyd Hall, and it is still used in that role.  Additionally, ethylene oxide is widely used to sterilize medical supplies such as bandages, sutures, and surgical implements.
    
Most ethylene oxide, however, is used as an intermediate in the production of other chemicals.  The major use of ethylene oxide is in the production of ethylene glycol, which is widely used as an automotive coolant and antifreeze, and is also used to produce polyester polymers.
    
Ethylene oxide itself can be polymerized to form polyethylene glycol or polyethylene oxide, which are useful as non-toxic, water-soluble polymers.  Ethylene oxide is also important in the manufacture of surfactants and otherdetergents.
    
One class of ethylene oxide derivatives that has attracted much scientific attention are the crown ethers, which are cyclic oligomers of ethylene oxide.  These compounds have the ability to make ionic compounds such as salts soluble in nonpolar solvents which they otherwise could not dissolve in.  However, the high cost of these compounds has largely confined their use to the laboratory.
    

    Health effects
    
Ethylene oxide is toxic by inhalation.  Symptoms of overexposure include headache and dizziness, progressing with increasing exposure to convulsions, seizure and coma.  It is also an irritant to skin and the respiratory tract, and inhaling the vapors may cause the lungs to fill with fluid several hours after exposure.
    
Ethylene oxide is usually stored as a pressurized or refrigerated liquid.  At room temperature and pressure, it rapidly evaporates, potentially causing frostbite in cases of skin exposure.
    
Laboratory animals exposed to ethylene oxide for their entire lives have had a higher incidence of liver cancer.  However, studies on human beings who have worked with ethylene oxide for extended periods and may have experienced low doses during that time have found no increase in cancer risk.  Chronic ethylene oxide exposure may increase the risk of cataracts in humans.
    
In animals, ethylene oxide can cause numerous reproductive effects, including mutations and a higher rate of miscarriages.  Its reproductive effects on humans have not been well studied, but it is considered probable that ethylene oxide exposure has similar effects on human reproduction.
    Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Ethylene oxide."
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    Glucose
    (From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
    
Glucose,  a Simple sugar monosaccharide, is one of the most important carbohydrates and is used for energy in plants and animals. The natural form (D-glucose) is also referred to as dextrose, especially in the food industry.
    

    
Glucose (C6H12O6) is a hexose--a monosaccharide containing six carbon atoms.  Glucose is an aldehyde (contains a -CHO group).  Five of the carbons plus an oxygen atom form a loop called a "pyranose ring", the most stable form for six-carbon aldoses. In this ring, each carbon is linked to hydroxyl and hydrogen side groups with the exception of the fifth atom, which links to a 6th carbon atom outside the ring, forming a CH2OH group.
    
There are two enantiomers (mirror-image isomers) of the sugar -- D-glucose and L-glucose, but in living organisms only the D-isomer is found.  The ring structure may form in two different ways, yielding alpha-glucose and beta-glucose. Structurally, they differ in the orientation of the hydroxyl group linked to the first carbon in the ring. The alpha form has the hydroxyl group "below" the hydrogen (as the molecule is conventionally drawn, as in the figure above), while the beta form has the hydroxyl group "above" the hydrogen.  These two forms interconvert on a timescale of hours in aqueous solution.
    
In respiration, through a series of enzyme-catalysed reactions, glucose is oxidized to eventually to form carbon dioxide and water, yielding energy, mostly in the form of ATP.
    
Chemically joined together, glucose and fructose form sucrose.  Starch, cellulose, and glycogen are common glucose polymers (polysaccharides).
    
The older name dextrose arose because a solution of D-glucose rotates polarised light towards the right. In the same vein D-fructose was called "levulose" because a solution of levulose rotates polarised light to the left.
    Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Glucose."
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    Heat capacity
    (From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
    
Heat capacity or thermal capacity is the ability of an object to store heat.  It is abbreviated to Cth, and its SI units are J/K (joule per kelvin).  The concept is further discussed in the article on temperature.
    
Heat capacity is related to thermal capacitance by the formula
    

    

    where 

    V = volume (m3)

    ρ = density (kg/m3)

    cp = specific heat (J/kgK) at constant pressure
    

    The product ρcp is known as thermal capacitance or (confusingly) thermal capacity, and has units of J/m3K.  Dulong and Petit predicted in 1818 that ρcp would be constant for all solids (the Dulong-Petit law).  In fact, the quantity varies from about 1.2 to 4.5 J/m3K.  For fluids it is in the range 1.3 to 1.9, and for gases it is a constant 0.001 J/m3K.
    Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Heat capacity."
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    Hepatitis C
    (From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
    The hepatitis C virus was discovered in 1989 and was
initially referred to as a "not-A-not-B" hepatitis virus.  The virus is a single-stranded, enveloped, positive sense RNA virus in the flavivirus family.
    
Hepatitis C infects an estimated 170 million persons worldwide and 3.9 million persons in the United States. Co-infection with HIV is common and rates among HIV positive populations are higher.
    
Currently, serological tests are available to check for infection. In addition, PCR can be used for more sensitivity and to elucidate a genotype for the infection. There are 6 major known genotypes.
    
The infection is spread by blood exchange and sexual contact. Before serological tests became available, it was often caused by the use of medical products derived from blood, and by blood transfusion.
    
Although it can be spread sexually, and vertically (from mother to child), transmission by these routes is not as likely as with hepatitis B. In most developed countries, it is usually seen primarily in intravenous drug users.
    
In most cases, acute hepatitis C infection has no symptoms and becomes chronic, and can cause long term damage to the liver, including cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma.
    
Treatment is mainly based on interferon, combined with other drugs; though this action does not guarantee results. Currently, the preferred treatment is pegylated interferon together with ribavirin.
    
Alternative therapies are proposed that can perhaps be considered ways
to reduce the liver's duties, rather than treat the virus itself. This will not affect the course of the disease or quality of life of the person.
    
Though hepatitis A, hepatitis B, and hepatitis C have similar names (because they all cause liver disease) the viruses themselves are quite different.
    
See also: sexually transmitted disease
    

    External Links
    
Viral Hepatitis C Frequently Asked Questions - cdc.gov
    
National Hepatitis C Prison Coalition
    Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Hepatitis C."
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    List of airports: C
    (From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
    
List of airports: A - B - C - D - E - F - G - H - I - J - K - L - M - N - O - P - Q - R - S - T - U - V - W - X - Y - Z

    

    C
    

    Top     

    List of AL Gold Glove Winners at Catcher
    (From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
    List of AL Gold Glove Winners at Catcher
    

Gold Glove
    
AL:
P | C | 1B | 2B | SS | 3B | OF
    
NL:
P | C | 1B | 2B | SS | 3B | OF

    

    

    YearPlayerTeam
    

    1957Sherm LollarChicago White Sox
    

    1958Sherm LollarChicago White Sox
    

    1959Sherm LollarChicago White Sox
    

    1960Earl BatteyWashington Senators
    

    1961Earl BatteyMinnesota Twins
    

    1962Earl BatteyMinnesota Twins
    

    1963Elston HowardNew York Yankees
    

    1964Elston HowardNew York Yankees
    

    1965Bill FreehanDetroit Tigers
    

    1966Bill FreehanDetroit Tigers
    

    1967Bill FreehanDetroit Tigers
    

    1968Bill FreehanDetroit Tigers
    

    1969Bill FreehanDetroit Tigers
    

    1970Ray FosseCleveland Indians
    

    1971Ray FosseCleveland Indians
    

    1972Carlton FiskBoston Red Sox
    

    1973Thurman MunsonNew York Yankees
    

    1974Thurman MunsonNew York Yankees
    

    1975Thurman MunsonNew York Yankees
    

    1976Jim SundbergTexas Rangers
    

    1977Jim SundbergTexas Rangers
    

    1978Jim SundbergTexas Rangers
    

    1979Jim SundbergTexas Rangers
    

    1980Jim SundbergTexas Rangers
    

    1981Jim SundbergTexas Rangers
    

    1982Bob BooneCalifornia Angels
    

    1983Lance ParrishDetroit Tigers
    

    1984Lance ParrishDetroit Tigers
    

    1985Lance ParrishDetroit Tigers
    

    1986Bob BooneCalifornia Angels
    

    1987Bob BooneCalifornia Angels
    

    1988Bob BooneCalifornia Angels
    

    1989Bob BooneKansas City Royals
    

    1990Sandy Alomar, JrCleveland Indians
    

    1991Tony PenaBoston Red Sox
    

    1992Ivan RodriguezTexas Rangers
    

    1993Ivan RodriguezTexas Rangers
    

    1994Ivan RodriguezTexas Rangers
    

    1995Ivan RodriguezTexas Rangers
    

    1996Ivan RodriguezTexas Rangers
    

    1997Ivan RodriguezTexas Rangers
    

    1998Ivan RodriguezTexas Rangers
    

    1999Ivan RodriguezTexas Rangers
    

    2000Ivan RodriguezTexas Rangers
    

    2001Ivan RodriguezTexas Rangers
    

    2002Ben MolinaAnaheim Angels
    

    2003Ben MolinaAnaheim Angels
    

    Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "List of AL Gold Glove Winners at Catcher."
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    List of Biblical names starting with C
    (From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
    List of Biblical names
    
A - B - C - D - E - F - G - H - I - J - K - L - M - N - O - P - Q - R - S - T - U - V - Y - Z

    Top     

    List of books by title: C
    (From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
    List of books in alphabetical order by title:
    
A - B -
C - D -
E - F -
G - H -
I - J -
K - L -
M - N -
O - P -
Q - R -
S - T -
U - V -
W - X -
Y - Z


    Top     

    List of cities in Germany starting with C
    (From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
    List of cities in Germany: A - B - C - D - E - F - G - H  - I - J - K - L - M - N - O - P - Q - R - S - T - U - V - W - X - Y - Z
    

    

    TownPopulationDistrictBundesland
    

    Castrop-Rauxel78,600RecklinghausenNorth Rhine-Westphalia
    

    Celle73,600CelleLower Saxony
    

    Chemnitz259,100--Saxony
    

    Clausthal-Zellerfeld16,000GoslarLower Saxony
    

    Cleves (Kleve)48,700ClevesNorth Rhine-Westphalia
    

    Cloppenburg28,000CloppenburgLower Saxony
    

    Coburg43,700--Bavaria
    

    Coesfeld35,900CoesfeldNorth Rhine-Westphalia
    

    Cologne (Köln)968,500--North Rhine-Westphalia
    

    Cottbus118,500--Brandenburg
    

    
A "--" in the district column means, that the town is a district-free town, i.e. it is by itself a district.
    Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "List of cities in Germany starting with C."
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    List of colleges and universities starting with C
    (From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
    A -- B -- C -- D -- E -- F -- G -- H -- I -- J -- K -- L -- M -- N -- O -- P -- Q -- R -- S -- T -- U -- V -- W -- X -- Y -- Z


    1. CDI-StW Management Institute

    2. CEMA Instituto Universitario

    3. Cabot College of Applied Arts, Technology and Continuing Education

    4. Cairo American College

    5. Calcutta University

    6. California Coast University

    7. California College for Health Sciences

    8. California Institute of Technology

    9. California Institute of the Arts

    10. California Lutheran University

    11. California Maritime Academy

    12. California National University for Advanced Studies

    13. California Pacific University

    14. California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo

    15. California School of Professional Psychology

    16. California State Polytechnic University, Pomona

    17. California State University, Bakersfield

    18. California State University, Chico

    19. California State University, Dominguez Hills

    20. California State University, Fresno

    21. California State University, Fullerton

    22. California State University, Hayward

    23. California State University, Long Beach

    24. California State University, Los Angeles

    25. California State University, Northridge

    26. California State University, Sacramento

    27. California State University, San Bernardino

    28. California State University, San Marcos

    29. California State University, Stanislaus

    30. California University of Pennsylvania

    31. Calvin College

    32. University of Cambridge

    33. Cameron University

    34. Camosun College

    35. Campbell University

    36. Canadian Baptist Seminary

    37. Canadian Coast Guard College

    38. Canadore College

    39. Canberra College of Theology

    40. Canisius College

    41. Capital Community-Technical College

    42. Capital University

    43. Capitol College

    44. Cardinal Stritch College

    45. Carleton College

    46. Carleton University

    47. Carlow College

    48. Carnegie-Mellon University (Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania)

    49. Carroll College

    50. Carroll College, Montana

    51. Carson-Newman College

    52. Carthage College

    53. Case Western Reserve University

    54. Castleton State College

    55. Catholic University of America

    56. Catholic University of Louvain

    57. Catonsville Community College

    58. Cecil Community College

    59. Cedarville College

    60. Cegep Andre-Laurendeau

    61. Cegep Beauce-Appalaches

    62. Cegep d'Ahuntsic

    63. Cegep d'Alma

    64. Cegep de Baie-Comeau

    65. Cegep de Bois-de-Boulogne

    66. Cegep de Chicoutimi

    67. Cegep de Drummondville

    68. Cegep de Granby-Haute-Yamaska

    69. Cegep de Jonquiere

    70. Cegep de l'Abitibi-Temiscamingue

    71. Cegep de la Gaspesie et des Iles

    72. Cegep de la Pocatiere

    73. Cegep de la region de l'Amiante

    74. Cegep de Levis-Lauzon

    75. Cegep de Limoilou

    76. Cegep de l'Outaouais

    77. Cegep de Matane

    78. Cegep de Maisonneuve

    79. Cegep de Rimouski

    80. Cegep de Riviere-du-Loup

    81. Cegep de Rosemont

    82. Cegep de Saint-Felicien

    83. Cegep de Saint-Hyacinthe

    84. Cegep de Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu

    85. Cegep de Saint-Jerome

    86. Cegep de Saint-Laurent

    87. Cegep de Sainte-Foy

    88. Cegep de Sept-Iles

    89. Cegep de Sherbrooke

    90. Cegep de Sorel-Tracy

    91. Cegep de Trois-Rivières

    92. Cegep de Valleyfield

    93. Cegep de Victoriaville

    94. Cegep du Vieux-Montreal

    95. Cegep Gerald-Godin

    96. Cegep Edouard-Montpetit

    97. Cegep Francois-Xavier-Garneau

    98. Cegep Lionel-Groulx

    99. Cegep Marie-Victorin

    100. Cegep Montmorency

    101. Cegep regional de Lanaudiere

    102. Centenary College

    103. Centenary College of Louisiana

    104. Central Alabama Community College

    105. Central Arizona College

    106. Central Christian College of the Bible

    107. Central College

    108. Central Connecticut State University

    109. Central Electrochemical Research Institue

    110. Central Electrochemical Research Institute, Karaikudi

    111. Central European University

    112. Central Florida Community College

    113. Central Institute of Technology

    114. Central Methodist College

    115. Central Michigan University

    116. Central Missouri State University

    117. Central Oregon Community College

    118. Central Piedmont Community College

    119. Central Queensland University

    120. Central University for Nationalities

    121. Central University of Hyderabad

    122. Central Washington University

    123. Centre College

    124. Centre Universitaire de Luxembourg

    125. Centre universitaire Saint-Louis-Maillet

    126. Centro de Ensenanza Te y Superior Universidad, Unidad Ensenada

    127. Centro de Ensenanza Te y Superior Universidad, Unidad Mexicali

    128. Centro de Ensenanza Te y Superior Universidad, Unidad Tijuana

    129. Centro de Investigacion Cientifica y de Educacion Superior de Ensenada

    130. Cerritos College

    131. Chaitanya Bharathi Institute of Technology, Hyderabad

    132. Chalmers Lindholmen University College

    133. Chalmers University of Technology

    134. Champlain College

    135. Chandler-Gilbert Community College

    136. Changwon National University

    137. Chapman University

    138. Charing Cross and Westminster Medical School

    139. Charles R. Drew University of Medicine and Science

    140. Charles Sturt University

    141. Charles University, Prague

    142. Charleston Southern University

    143. Chase College of Law

    144. Chatham College

    145. Chattanooga State Technical Community College

    146. Cheju National University

    147. Chemeketa Community College

    148. Chesapeake College

    149. Chiang Mai University

    150. Chiba University

    151. Chicago School of Professional Psychology

    152. Chicago-Kent College of law

    153. China Academy of Railway Sciences

    154. China Junior College of Industrial and Commercial Management

    155. China Medical College

    156. Chinese University of Hong Kong

    157. Chonnam National University

    158. Chonnam National University College of Veterinary Medicine

    159. Christchurch Polytechnic

    160. Christendom College

    161. Christian Brothers University

    162. Christian-Albrechts-Universitat zu Kiel

    163. Christopher Newport University

    164. Chubu University

    165. Chukyo University

    166. Chulalongkorn University

    167. Chung Ang University

    168. Chung Cheng Institute of Technology

    169. Chung Hua Polytechnic Institute

    170. Chung Shan Medical and Dental College

    171. Chung Yuan Christian University

    172. ChungNam National University

    173. Chungbuk National University

    174. Citadel

    175. City College of New York

    176. City College of San Francisco

    177. City University

    178. City University of Hong Kong

    179. City University of New York

    180. City University, Seattle WA

    181. Clackamas Community College

    182. Claflin College

    183. Claremont College 

    184. Claremont McKenna College

    185. Clarion University

    186. Clark Atlanta University

    187. Clark College

    188. Clark University

    189. Clarke College

    190. Clarkson University

    191. Clemson University

    192. Cleveland State University

    193. Clinch Valley College

    194. Coast Community College District

    195. Cochin University of Science and Technology

    196. Cochise Community College

    197. Coe College

    198. Cogswell Polytechnical College

    199. Coimbatore Institute of Technology (CIT)

    200. Coker College

    201. Colby College

    202. Colby-Sawyer College

    203. Colegio America

    204. Colegio Mayor de Nuestra Senora del Rosario

    205. Colegio Universitario Andino

    206. Colgate University

    207. Collaborative Information Technology Research Institute

    208. College de France

    209. College des Ingenieurs

    210. College International de Cannes

    211. College Jean-de-Brebeuf

    212. College Jean-Guy Leboeuf

    213. College Militaire Royale

    214. College Notre-Dame

    215. College of Aeronautics

    216. College of Charleston

    217. College of DuPage

    218. College of Eastern Utah

    219. College of Lake County

    220. College of Marin

    221.  College of Saint Benedict | Saint John's University

    222. College of Science, Warsaw

    223. College of Security Technology and Management

    224. College of St. Catherine

    225. College of St. Hild and St. Bede

    226. College of Staten Island

    227. College of the Atlantic

    228. College of the Canyons

    229. College of the Holy Cross

    230. College of the Redwoods

    231. College of the Siskiyous

    232. College of William and Mary

    233. College of Wooster

    234. College Shawinigan

    235. Colorado Christian University

    236. Colorado College

    237. Colorado Mountain College

    238. Colorado Northwestern Community College

    239. Colorado School of Mines

    240. Colorado State University

    241. Columbia College

    242. Columbia Union College 

    243. Columbia University

    244. Columbus State Community College

    245. Comenius University

    246. Community College of Beaver County

    247. Community College of Southern Nevada

    248. Concord College

    249. Concordia College

    250. Concordia International University Estonia

    251. Concordia University

    252. Concordia University College of Alberta

    253. Concordia University Wisconsin

    254. Concordia University, River Forest

    255. Conestoga College

    256. Confederation College

    257. Connecticut College

    258. Connecticut Community-Technical College

    259. Converse College

    260. Coolmine Community School

    261. Cooper Union

    262. Copenhagen Business School

    263. Coppin State College

    264. Coquitlam College

    265. Cornell College

    266. Cornell University

    267. Cornerstone College

    268. Corning Community College

    269. Cosumnes River College

    270. Covenant College

    271. Covenant Theological Seminary

    272. Cracow University of Technology

    273. Cranbrook Academy of Art

    274. Cranfield University

    275. Creighton University

    276. Crescent Engineering College

    277. Cricklade College

    278. Criswell College

    279. Culdee College

    280. Culinary Institute of America

    281. Curry College

    282. Curtin University, Western Australia

    283. Cuyahoga Community College

    284. Cuyamaca Community College District

    285. Cypress College

    286. Cyprus College

    287. Czech Technical University, Prague
      

    See also : Colleges and universities
    Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "List of colleges and universities starting with C."
    Top     

    List of Japanese authors:C
    (From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
    List of Japanese authors
    

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    List of NL Gold Glove Winners at Catcher
    (From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
    List of NL Gold Glove Winners at Catcher
    

Gold Glove
    
AL:
P | C | 1B | 2B | SS | 3B | OF
    
NL:
P | C | 1B | 2B | SS | 3B | OF


    

    YearPlayerTeam
    

    1957Sherm LollarChicago White Sox
    

    1958Del CrandallMilwaukee Braves
    

    1959Del CrandallMilwaukee Braves
    

    1960Del CrandallMilwaukee Braves
    

    1961Johnny RoseboroLos Angeles Dodgers
    

    1962Del CrandallMilwaukee Braves
    

    1963Johnny EdwardsCincinnati Reds
    

    1964Johnny EdwardsCincinnati Reds
    

    1965Joe TorreMilwaukee Braves
    

    1966Johnny RoseboroLos Angeles Dodgers
    

    1967Randy HundleyChicago Cubs
    

    1968Johnny BenchCincinnati Reds
    

    1969Johnny BenchCincinnati Reds
    

    1970Johnny BenchCincinnati Reds
    

    1971Johnny BenchCincinnati Reds
    

    1972Johnny BenchCincinnati Reds
    

    1973Johnny BenchCincinnati Reds
    

    1974Johnny BenchCincinnati Reds
    

    1975Johnny BenchCincinnati Reds
    

    1976Johnny BenchCincinnati Reds
    

    1977Johnny BenchCincinnati Reds
    

    1978Bob BoonePhiladelphia Phillies
    

    1979Bob BoonePhiladelphia Phillies
    

    1980Gary CarterMontreal Expos
    

    1981Gary CarterMontreal Expos
    

    1982Gary CarterMontreal Expos
    

    1983Tony PenaPittsburgh Pirates
    

    1984Tony PenaPittsburgh Pirates
    

    1985Tony PenaPittsburgh Pirates
    

    1986Jody DavisChicago Cubs
    

    1987Mike LaVallierePittsburgh Pirates
    

    1988Benito SantiagoSan Diego Padres
    

    1989Benito SantiagoSan Diego Padres
    

    1990Benito SantiagoSan Diego Padres
    

    1991Tom PagnozziSt. Louis Cardinals
    

    1992Tom PagnozziSt. Louis Cardinals
    

    1993Kirt ManwaringSan Francisco Giants
    

    1994Tom PagnozziSt. Louis Cardinals
    

    1995Charles JohnsonFlorida Marlins
    

    1996Charles JohnsonFlorida Marlins
    

    1997Charles JohnsonFlorida Marlins
    

    1998Charles JohnsonFlorida Marlins/Los Angeles Dodgers
    

    1999Mike LieberthalPhiladelphia Phillies
    

    2000Mike MathenySt. Louis Cardinals
    

    2001Brad AusmusHouston Astros
    

    2002Brad AusmusHouston Astros
    

    2003Mike MathenySt. Louis Cardinals
    

    Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "List of NL Gold Glove Winners at Catcher."
    Top     

    List of people by name: C
    (From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
    List of people by name:
A - B -
C - D -
E - F -
G - H -
I - J -
K - L -
M - N -
O - P -
Q - R -
S - T -
U - V -
W - X -
Y - Z

Ca - Cb -
Cc - Cd -
Ce - Cf -
Cg - Ch -
Ci - Cj -
Ck - Cl -
Cm - Cn -
Co - Cp -
Cq - Cr -
Cs - Ct -
Cu - Cv -
Cw - Cx -
Cy - Cz

    Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "List of people by name: C."
    Top     

    List of people by name: Ca
    (From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
    List of people by name:
A - B -
C - D -
E - F -
G - H -
I - J -
K - L -
M - N -
O - P -
Q - R -
S - T -
U - V -
W - X -
Y - Z

Ca - Cb -
Cc - Cd -
Ce - Cf -
Cg - Ch -
Ci - Cj -
Ck - Cl -
Cm - Cn -
Co - Cp -
Cq - Cr -
Cs - Ct -
Cu - Cv -
Cw - Cx -
Cy - Cz


    Top     

    List of people by name: Cb
    (From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
    List of people by name:
A - B -
C - D -
E - F -
G - H -
I - J -
K - L -
M - N -
O - P -
Q - R -
S - T -
U - V -
W - X -
Y - Z

Ca - Cb -
Cc - Cd -
Ce - Cf -
Cg - Ch -
Ci - Cj -
Ck - Cl -
Cm - Cn -
Co - Cp -
Cq - Cr -
Cs - Ct -
Cu - Cv -
Cw - Cx -
Cy - Cz

    Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "List of people by name: Cb."
    Top     

    List of people by name: Cc
    (From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
    List of people by name:
A - B -
C - D -
E - F -
G - H -
I - J -
K - L -
M - N -
O - P -
Q - R -
S - T -
U - V -
W - X -
Y - Z

Ca - Cb -
Cc - Cd -
Ce - Cf -
Cg - Ch -
Ci - Cj -
Ck - Cl -
Cm - Cn -
Co - Cp -
Cq - Cr -
Cs - Ct -
Cu - Cv -
Cw - Cx -
Cy - Cz

    Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "List of people by name: Cc."
    Top     

    List of people by name: Cd
    (From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
    List of people by name:
A - B -
C - D -
E - F -
G - H -
I - J -
K - L -
M - N -
O - P -
Q - R -
S - T -
U - V -
W - X -
Y - Z

Ca - Cb -
Cc - Cd -
Ce - Cf -
Cg - Ch -
Ci - Cj -
Ck - Cl -
Cm - Cn -
Co - Cp -
Cq - Cr -
Cs - Ct -
Cu - Cv -
Cw - Cx -
Cy - Cz

    Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "List of people by name: Cd."
    Top     

    List of people by name: Ce
    (From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
    List of people by name:
A - B -
C - D -
E - F -
G - H -
I - J -
K - L -
M - N -
O - P -
Q - R -
S - T -
U - V -
W - X -
Y - Z

Ca - Cb -
Cc - Cd -
Ce - Cf -
Cg - Ch -
Ci - Cj -
Ck - Cl -
Cm - Cn -
Co - Cp -
Cq - Cr -
Cs - Ct -
Cu - Cv -
Cw - Cx -
Cy - Cz


    Top     

    List of people by name: Ch
    (From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
    List of people by name:
A - B -
C - D -
E - F -
G - H -
I - J -
K - L -
M - N -
O - P -
Q - R -
S - T -
U - V -
W - X -
Y - Z

Ca - Cb -
Cc - Cd -
Ce - Cf -
Cg - Ch -
Ci - Cj -
Ck - Cl -
Cm - Cn -
Co - Cp -
Cq - Cr -
Cs - Ct -
Cu - Cv -
Cw - Cx -
Cy - Cz

    

    Cha
    

    Che
    

    Chi
    

    Top     

    List of people by name: Ci
    (From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
    List of people by name:
A - B -
C - D -
E - F -
G - H -
I - J -
K - L -
M - N -
O - P -
Q - R -
S - T -
U - V -
W - X -
Y - Z

Ca - Cb -
Cc - Cd -
Ce - Cf -
Cg - Ch -
Ci - Cj -
Ck - Cl -
Cm - Cn -
Co - Cp -
Cq - Cr -
Cs - Ct -
Cu - Cv -
Cw - Cx -
Cy - Cz


    Top     

    List of people by name: Cl
    (From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
    List of people by name:
A - B -
C - D -
E - F -
G - H -
I - J -
K - L -
M - N -
O - P -
Q - R -
S - T -
U - V -
W - X -
Y - Z

Ca - Cb -
Cc - Cd -
Ce - Cf -
Cg - Ch -
Ci - Cj -
Ck - Cl -
Cm - Cn -
Co - Cp -
Cq - Cr -
Cs - Ct -
Cu - Cv -
Cw - Cx -
Cy - Cz


    Top     

    List of people by name: Co
    (From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
    List of people by name:
A - B -
C - D -
E - F -
G - H -
I - J -
K - L -
M - N -
O - P -
Q - R -
S - T -
U - V -
W - X -
Y - Z

Ca - Cb -
Cc - Cd -
Ce - Cf -
Cg - Ch -
Ci - Cj -
Ck - Cl -
Cm - Cn -
Co - Cp -
Cq - Cr -
Cs - Ct -
Cu - Cv -
Cw - Cx -
Cy - Cz


    Top     

    List of people by name: Cr
    (From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
    List of people by name:
A - B -
C - D -
E - F -
G - H -
I - J -
K - L -
M - N -
O - P -
Q - R -
S - T -
U - V -
W - X -
Y - Z

Ca - Cb -
Cc - Cd -
Ce - Cf -
Cg - Ch -
Ci - Cj -
Ck - Cl -
Cm - Cn -
Co - Cp -
Cq - Cr -
Cs - Ct -
Cu - Cv -
Cw - Cx -
Cy - Cz


    Top     

    List of people by name: Cs
    (From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
    List of people by name:
A - B -
C - D -
E - F -
G - H -
I - J -
K - L -
M - N -
O - P -
Q - R -
S - T -
U - V -
W - X -
Y - Z

Ca - Cb -
Cc - Cd -
Ce - Cf -
Cg - Ch -
Ci - Cj -
Ck - Cl -
Cm - Cn -
Co - Cp -
Cq - Cr -
Cs - Ct -
Cu - Cv -
Cw - Cx -
Cy - Cz


    Top     

    List of people by name: Cu
    (From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
    List of people by name:
A - B -
C - D -
E - F -
G - H -
I - J -
K - L -
M - N -
O - P -
Q - R -
S - T -
U - V -
W - X -
Y - Z

Ca - Cb -
Cc - Cd -
Ce - Cf -
Cg - Ch -
Ci - Cj -
Ck - Cl -
Cm - Cn -
Co - Cp -
Cq - Cr -
Cs - Ct -
Cu - Cv -
Cw - Cx -
Cy - Cz


    Top     

    List of people by name: Cv
    (From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
    List of people by name:
A - B -
C - D -
E - F -
G - H -
I - J -
K - L -
M - N -
O - P -
Q - R -
S - T -
U - V -
W - X -
Y - Z

Ca - Cb -
Cc - Cd -
Ce - Cf -
Cg - Ch -
Ci - Cj -
Ck - Cl -
Cm - Cn -
Co - Cp -
Cq - Cr -
Cs - Ct -
Cu - Cv -
Cw - Cx -
Cy - Cz


    Top     

    List of people by name: Cy
    (From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
    List of people by name:
A - B -
C - D -
E - F -
G - H -
I - J -
K - L -
M - N -
O - P -
Q - R -
S - T -
U - V -
W - X -
Y - Z

Ca - Cb -
Cc - Cd -
Ce - Cf -
Cg - Ch -
Ci - Cj -
Ck - Cl -
Cm - Cn -
Co - Cp -
Cq - Cr -
Cs - Ct -
Cu - Cv -
Cw - Cx -
Cy - Cz


    Top     

    List of people by name: Cz
    (From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
    List of people by name:
A - B -
C - D -
E - F -
G - H -
I - J -
K - L -
M - N -
O - P -
Q - R -
S - T -
U - V -
W - X -
Y - Z

Ca - Cb -
Cc - Cd -
Ce - Cf -
Cg - Ch -
Ci - Cj -
Ck - Cl -
Cm - Cn -
Co - Cp -
Cq - Cr -
Cs - Ct -
Cu - Cv -
Cw - Cx -
Cy - Cz


    Top     

    List of rare diseases starting with C
    (From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
    This list of rare diseases was originally taken from the
NIH public domain resource at http://ord.aspensys.com/asp/diseases/diseases.asp .
    
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
    

    Top     

    List of songs by name: C
    (From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
    List of songs by name:
0 - A - 
B - C - 
D - E - 
F - G - 
H - I - 
J - K - 
L - M - 
N - O - 
P - Q - 
R - S - 
T - U - 
V - W - 
X - Y - 
Z

    

    1.  "Cadillac Ranch" - Bruce Springsteen

    2.  "Cajun Moon" - J J Cale

    3.  "Caledonia" - Frankie Miller

    4.  "California" - Eddi Reader

    5.  "California Dreaming" - Mamas and the Papas

    6.  "California Man" - Cheap Trick

    7.  "California Man" - The Move

    8.  "Call Me" - Blondie

    9.  "Call Me The Breeze" - J J Cale

    10.  "Call Me Your Doctor" - Graham Parker

    11.  "Call The Man" - Celine Dion

    12.  "Calling Out for Love (At Crying Time)" - Marshall Crenshaw

    13.  "Calling Professor Longhair" - Amy Rigby

    14.  "Can I Take You Home Little Girl" - The Drifters

    15.  "Can We Still Be Friends" - Todd Rundgren

    16.  "Can You Be True?" - Elvis Costello

    17.  "Can You Feel The Love Tonight" - Elton John

    18.  "Can't Fight This Feeling" - REO Speedwagon

    19.  "Can't Get Enough" - Bad Company

    20.  "Can't Get Through" - Chris Rea

    21.  "Can't Get It Out of My Head" - Electric Light Orchestra

    22.  "Can't Get You Out of My Head" - Kylie Minogue

    23.  "Can't Hold Us Down" - Christina Aguilera featuring Lil' Kim

    24.  "Canada" - Runrig

    25.  "Cancer" - Joe Jackson

    26.  "Candle In The Wind" - Elton John

    27.  "Candy's Room" - Bruce Springsteen

    28.  "Canned Laughter" - Graham Parker

    29.  "Capital Radio" - The Clash

    30.  "Career Opportunities" - The Clash

    31.  "Caroline" - David Gray

    32.  "Caroline, No" - Beach Boys

    33.  "Carrie Anne" - The Hollies

    34.  "Carry Me Carrie" - Dr Hook

    35.  "Carry On" - J J Cale

    36.  "Catfish Girl" - Chris Rea

    37.  "Cathy's Clown" - Everly Brothers

    38.  "Cats in the Cradle" - Cat Stevens

    39.  "Cecilia" - Simon & Garfunkel

    40.  "Cellophane City" - Steve Forbert

    41.  "Centerfield" - John Fogerty

    42.  "Chain Reaction" - Diana Ross

    43.  "Chains" - Tina Arena

    44.  "Change In The Weather" - John Fogerty

    45.  "Chameleon" - Creedence Clearwater Revival

    46.  "Chance" - Big Country

    47.  "Changes" - J J Cale

    48.  "Changing Times" - Chris Rea

    49.  "Chapel Of Love" - Dixie Cups

    50.  "Chapter 24" - Piper at the Gates of Dawn by Pink Floyd

    51.  "Character Assassination" - Graham Parker

    52.  "Charlie Don't Surf" - The Clash

    53.  "Cheat" - The Clash

    54.  "Chemistry Class" - Elvis Costello

    55.  "Cherry" - J J Cale

    56.  "Child In Time" - Deep Purple

    57.  "Chinatown" - Joe Jackson

    58.  "Chords of Life" - Joe Satriani

    59.  "Cinderella Man" - A Farewell to Kings by Rush

    60.  "Cindy of a Thousand Lives" - Billy Bragg

    61.  "Circle in the Sand" - Belinda Carlisle

    62.  "Circle of Life" - Elton John

    63.  "Circle Of One" - Oleta Adams

    64.  "City Girls" - J J Cale

    65.  "City of the Dead" - The Clash

    66.  "City To City" - Gerry Rafferty

    67.  "Civil War" - Guns N' Roses

    68.  "Clampdown" - The Clash

    69.  "Clash City Rockers" - The Clash

    70.  "Clear" - Eddi Reader

    71.  "Clear Head" - Graham Parker

    72.  "Clock Strikes Ten" - Cheap Trick

    73.  "Closer to the Heart" - A Farewell to Kings by Rush

    74.  "Cloudy Day" - J J Cale

    75.  "Clowntime Is Over" - Elvis Costello

    76.  "Clown Strike" - Elvis Costello

    77.  "Clubland" - Elvis Costello

    78.  "Cluster One" - The Division Bell by Pink Floyd

    79.  "Coat Of Many Colours" - Dolly Parton

    80.  "Cocaine" - J J Cale

    81.  "Coconut" - Harry Nilsson

    82.  "Cold Day In Hell" - Gary Moore

    83.  "Cold Highway" - Elton John

    84.  "Cold Wind Blows" - Gary Moore

    85.  "Come Back To Me" - Gerry And The Pacemakers

    86.  "Come Back To What You Know" - Embrace

    87.  "Come Be My Baby" - Ronan Keating

    88.  "Come On, Come On" - Cheap Trick

    89.  "Come On Eileen" - Dexy's Midnight Runners

    90.  "Come On Over" - Shania Twain

    91.  "Come on over to my place" - The Drifters

    92.  "Comfortably Numb" - Pink Floyd

    93.  "Coming Around Again" - Carly Simon

    94.  "Coming Back to Life" - The Division Bell by Pink Floyd

    95.  "Coming back to you" - Leonard Cohen

    96.  "Coming Down" - Starsailor

    97.  "Commotion" - Creedence Clearwater Revival

    98.  "Complete Control" - The Clash

    99.  "Completely" - Michael Bolton

    100.  "Complicated Shadows" - Elvis Costello

    101.  "Complications" - Steve Forbert

    102.  "Congo" - Genesis

    103.  "Congratulations" - Traveling Wilburys

    104.  "Connected" - Stereo MC's

    105.  "Copperhead Road" - Steve Earle

    106.  "Cops and Robbers" - George Thorogood & the Destroyers

    107.  "Cotton Eye Joe" - Rednex

    108.  "Cotton Fields" - Creedence Clearwater Revival

    109.  "Couldn't Call It Unexpected No.4" - Elvis Costello

    110.  "Countin' On A Miracle" - Bruce Springsteen

    111.  "Country Boy" - Glen Campbell

    112.  "Cover Of The Rolling Stone" - Dr Hook

    113.  "Cover Me" - Bruce Springsteen

    114.  "Coz I Luv You" - Slade

    115.  "Cracking Up" - Nick Lowe 

    116.  "Crawling From The Wreckage" - Dave Edmunds

    117.  "Crawling To The U.S.A." - Elvis Costello

    118.  "Crazy" - Patsy Cline

    119.  "Crazy Little Thing Called Love" - Adam Couldwell

    120.  "Crazy Little Thing Called Love" - Queen

    121.  "Crazy Mama" - J J Cale

    122.  "Crazy On You" - Heart

    123.  "Crocodile Rock" - Elton John

    124.  "Crocodile Shoes" - Jimmy Nail

    125.  "Cross-tie Walker" - Creedence Clearwater Revival

    126.  "Crossroads" - Cream

    127.  "Cruel to Be Kind" - Nick Lowe 

    128.  "Crush" - Jennifer Paige

    129.  "Cry Cry" - Cheap Trick

    130.  "Crying" - Roy Orbison

    131.  "Crying For Attention" - Graham Parker

    132.  "Crying In The Rain" - Everly Brothers

    133.  "Crying In The Shadows" - Gary Moore

    134.  "Crying Time" - Dean Martin

    135.  "Cygnus X-1" - A Farewell to Kings by Rush

    136.  "Cynical Girl" - Marshall Crenshaw

    137.  "Cynically Yours" - Amy Rigby
      Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "List of songs by name: C."
    Top     

    Manifold
    (From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
    
This page deals only with the mathematical term. See also: River Manifold.

In mathematics, a manifold is a topological space that looks locally like the "ordinary" Euclidean space Rn and is a Hausdorff space. An example is the surface of a sphere such as Earth, which is not a plane, but small patches of it are homeomorphic to (i.e., topologically equivalent to) patches of the Euclidean plane.
To make precise the notion of "looks locally like" one uses local coordinate systems or charts, as will be described in detail below.
Every manifold has a dimension, the number of coordinates needed in local coordinate systems.
    
Requiring a manifold to be Hausdorff may seem strange; it is tempting to think that being locally homeomorphic to a Euclidean space implies being a Hausdorff space.  A counterexample is created by deleting zero from the real line and replacing it with two points, an open neighborhood of either of which includes all nonzero numbers in some open interval centered at zero. This construction, called the real line with two origins is not Hausdorff, because the two origins cannot be separated.
    
If the local charts on a manifold are compatible in a certain sense, one can talk about directions, tangent spaces, and differentiable functions on that manifold.
These manifolds are called differentiable.
In order to measure lengths and angles, even more structure is needed and one defines Riemannian manifolds.
    
Differentiable manifolds are used in mathematics to describe geometrical objects; they are also the most natural and general setting to study differentiability (but see diffeology for more general notions).
In physics, differentiable manifolds serve as the phase space in classical mechanics and four dimensional pseudo-Riemannian manifolds are used to model spacetime in general relativity.
What follows is a clean mathematical treatment of manifolds.

    Topological manifolds
    
A topological n-manifold with boundary is a Hausdorff space in which every point has an open neighbourhood homeomorphic to either an open subset of E n (Euclidean n-space) or an open subset of the closed half of E n.
The set of points which have an open neighbourhood homeomorphic to E n is called the interior of the manifold; it is always non-empty.
The complement of the interior, i.e. the set of points which have an open neighbourhood homeomorphic to a closed half of E n, is called the boundary; it is an (n-1)-manifold. 
    
A manifold with empty boundary is said to be '\closed if it is compact, and open' if it is not compact.
    
Manifolds inherit many of the local properties of Euclidean space.
In particular, they are locally path-connected, locally compact and locally metrizable.
(Readers should see the Topology Glossary for definitions of topological terms used in this article.)
Being locally compact Hausdorff spaces they are necessarily Tychonoff spaces.
Every connected manifold without boundary is homogeneous.
    
It can be shown that a manifold is metrizable if and only if it is paracompact.
Non-paracompact manifolds (such as the long line) are generally regarded as pathological, so it's common to add paracompactness to the definition of an n-manifold.
Sometimes n-manifolds are defined to be second countable, which is precisely the condition required to ensure that the manifold embeds in some finite-dimensional Euclidean space.
Note that every compact manifold is second-countable, and every second-countable manifold is paracompact.
    
The classification of n-manifolds for n greater than four is known to be impossible; it is equivalent to the so-called word problem in group theory, which has been shown to be undecidable.
    
We know that every second-countable connected 1-manifold without boundary is homeomorphic either to R or the circle.
(The unconnected ones are just disjoint unions of these.)
For a classification of 2-manifolds, see Surface.
    
The 3-dimensional case is still open.  Thurston's Geometrization Conjecture, if true, together with current knowledge, would imply a classification of 3-manifolds.  Grigori Perelman may have proven this conjecture; his work is currently being evaluated, as of June 14, 2003.

    Differentiable manifolds
    
In order to discuss differentiability of functions, one needs more structure than a topological manifold provides. We start with a topological manifold M without boundary.
An open set of M together with a homeomorphism between the open set and an open set of En is called a coordinate chart.
A collection of charts which cover M is called an atlas of M.
The homeomorphisms of two overlapping charts provide a transition map from a subset of En to some other subset of En.
If all these maps are k times continuously differentiable, then the atlas is an Ck atlas.
    
Example: The unit sphere in R3 can be covered by two charts: the complements of the north and south poles with coordinate maps - stereographic projections relative to the two poles.
    
Two Ck atlases are called equivalent if their union is a Ck atlas.
This is an equivalence relation, and a Ck manifold is defined to be a manifold together with an equivalence class of Ck atlases.
If all the connecting maps are infinitely often differentiable, then one speaks of a smooth or
C∞ manifold; if they are all analytic, then the manifold is an analytic or Cω manifold. 
    
Intuitively, a smooth atlas provides local coordinate systems such that the change-of-coordinate functions are smooth.
These coordinate systems allow one to define differentiability and integrability of functions on M.
    
Associated with every point on a differentiable manifold is a tangent space and its dual, the cotangent space.
The former consists of the possible directional derivatives, and the latter of the differentials, which can be thought of as infinitesimal elements of the manifold.
These spaces always have the same dimension n as the manifold does.
The collection of all tangent spaces can in turn be made into a manifold, the tangent bundle, whose dimension is 2n.
    
If a C∞ manifold also carries a differentiable group structure, it is called a Lie group.
These are the proper objects for describing symmetries of analytical structures.
    
Once a C1 atlas on a paracompact manifold is given, we can refine it to a real analytic atlas (meaning that the new atlas, considered as a C1 atlas, is equivalent to the given one), and all such refinements give the same analytic manifold. Therefore, one often considers only these latter manifolds.
    
Not every topological manifold admits such a smooth atlas. The lowest dimension is 4 where there are non-smoothable topological manifolds. Also, it is possible for two non-equivalent differentiable manifolds to be homeomorphic. The famous example was given by John Milnor of wild 7-spheres, i.e. non-diffeomorphic topological 7-spheres. 
    

    Riemannian manifolds
    
On differentiable manifolds, there are no notions of length, volume and angle.
In order to introduce these, one needs a way to measure the lengths and angles between tangent vectors.
A Riemannian manifold is a differentiable manifold on which the tangent spaces are equipped with inner products in a differentiable fashion.
    

    Generalizations
    
The category of smooth manifolds with smooth maps lacks certain desirable properties, and people have tried to generalize smooth manifolds in order to rectify this.  The diffeological spaces use a different notion of chart known as "plots". Differential spaces and Frölicher spaces are other attempts.
    
Manifolds "locally look like" Euclidean space Rn and are therefore inherently finite-dimensional objects. To allow for infinite dimensions, one may consider Banach manifolds which locally look like Banach spaces, or Fréchet manifolds, which locally look like Fréchet spaces.
    
See also Orbifold.
    Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Manifold."
    Top     

    Poker jargon starting with C
    (From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
    Poker jargon:
    

    A - B - C - D - E - F -   G - H - I - J - K - L - M - N - O - P - Q - R - S - T - U - V - W - X - Y - Z
    

    ; call

     To match the current bet amount, maintaining one's interest in the pot. See call.
    

    ; calling station

     A weak player who frequently checks and calls, but rarely raises.
    

    ; cap

     A limit on the number of raises allowed in a betting round. Typically three or four (in addition the opening bet). In most casinos, the cap is removed if there are only two players remaining either (1) at the beginning of the betting round, or (2) at the time that what would have otherwise been the last raise is made.
    

    ; cards speak

    1.  Describing a split-pot game, one without a declaration.

    2.  A common house rule stating that properly shown hands at showdown may be read by anyone, and need not be announced. See cards speak.
      

    ; case card

     The last available card of a certain description (typically a rank). The only way I can win is to catch the case king., meaning the only king remaining in the deck.
    

    ; cash plays

     See "money plays".
    

    ; catch

     To receive needed cards on a draw. I'm down 300--I can't catch anything today. or Joe caught his flush early, but I caught the boat on seventh street to beat him. Ofteen used with an adjective to further specify, for example "catch perfect", "catch inside", "catch smooth".
    

    ; catch up

     To successfully complete a draw, thus defeating a player who previously had a better hand. I was sure I had Karen beat, but she caught up when that spade fell.
    

    ; cat-hop

     In five-card draw, a longshot draw requiring two desired cards to make a hand, specifically drawing two cards to a straight or flush, or drawing two cards to a small pair and kicker to make a full house.
    

    ; center pot

     The main pot in a table stakes game where one or more players are all in.
    

    ; Charlie

     Third player to the dealer's left. See "Able, Baker, Charlie".
    

    ; chase

    1.  To continue to play a drawing hand over multiple betting rounds, especially one unlikely to succeed. Frank knew I made three nines on fourth street, but he chased that flush draw all the way to the river.

    2.  To continue playing with a hand that is not likely the best because one has already invested money in the pot.
      

    ; check

    1.  To bet nothing. See check.

    2.  A casino chip.
      

    ; check out

     To fold, in turn, even though there is no bet facing the player. In some games this is considered a breach of etiquette equivalent to folding out of turn.  In others it is permitted, but frowned upon.
    

    ; check-raise

     To check, and then raise someone else's open. See check-raise.
    

    ; cheese

     A poor hand. Throw that piece of cheese in the muck and move on to the next hand.
    

    ; chip

     A token representing money used for betting.
    

    ; chip along

     To bet or call the minimum required to stay in, often done with little or no reflection. See also "white check".
    

    ; chip declare

     A method of declaring intent to play high or low in a split-pot game with declaration (see declaration).
    

    ; chip up

     To exchange lower-denomination chips for higher-denomination chips. In tournament play, the term means to removing all the small chips from play by rounding up any odd small chips to the nearest large denomination, rather than using a chip race.
    

    ; chip race

     In tournament play, the act of removing all the small chips from play by dealing random cards to players holding odd chips, and awarding a proportional number of larger chips to the highest-ranking cards. See chip race.
    

    ; chop

    1.  To split a pot because of a tie, split-pot game, or player agreement.

    2.  To play a game for a short time and cash out; see "hit and run".

    3.  A request made by a player to a dealer after toking a large-denomination chip that he wishes the dealer to make change.

    4.  To chop blinds.
      

    ; chop blinds

     An agreement between neighboring players having posted blinds that if all other players fold to them, they will each retrieve their respective blind amounts and discard their hands rather than playing out the hand. This is done to avoid excessive charges by the casino for small pots. It is generally frowned upon by casinos, so it usually takes the form of the small blind folding, and then the player with the large blind refunding the small blind amount while the dealer isn't looking. Agreement must be made ahead of time.
    

    ; closed

    1.  Describing a betting round, the condition that no player is eligible to raise, either because the last raise was called by all players, or because the cap was reached.

    2.  Describing a poker game, one in which each player's cards are concealed from all opponents.  See closed.
      

    ; coffeehouse

     To make annoying smalltalk during a game, to make comments about a hand in progress, or to make deceptive comments about one's own play.
    

    ; cold

    1.  Consecutive, as in I caught three cold spades for the flush.

    2.  Unlucky, as in I've been cold all week.
      

    ; cold call

     To call an amount that represents a sum of bets or raises by more than one player. Alice opened for $10, Bob raised another $20, and Charlie cold called the $30.
    

    ; cold deck

     A deck previously arranged to produce a specific outcome, then surreptitiously switched into the game. Called "cold" because such a deck switched in during play will not have been warmed by the dealer's hands. I can't believe Jim got those four kings the same time I got four sixes--it was like being cold-decked.  Also "ice".
    

    ; collusion

     A form of cheating involving cooperation among two or more players. See collusion.
    

    ; color change, color up

     To exchange small-denomination chips for larger ones.
    

    ; combo, combination game

     A casino table at which multiple forms of poker are played in rotation.
    

    ; come bet, on the come

     A bet or raise made with a drawing hand, building the pot in anticipation of filling the draw. Usually a weak "gambler's" play, but occasionally correct with a very good draw and large pot or as a semi-bluff.
    

    ; community card

     A card dealt face-up to the center of the table (not to any one player's hand), which can be used in some way by multiple players according to specific game rules. See community card, community card game.
    

    ; completion

     To raise a small bet up to the amount of what would be a normal-sized bet. For example, in a $2/$4 stud game with $1 bring-in, a player after the bring-in may raise it to $2, completing what would otherwise be a sub-minimum bet up to the normal minimum. Also in limit games, if one player raises all in for less than the normally required minimum, a later player might complete the raise to the normal minimum (depending on house rules; see table stakes).
    

    ; connectors

     Two or more cards of consecutive rank.
    

    ; countdown

    1.  Especially in lowball, two hands very nearly tied that must be compared in detail to determine a winner, for example, 8-6-5-3-2 versus 8-6-5-3-A.

    2.  The act of counting the cards that remain in the stub after all cards have been dealt, done by a dealer to ensure that a complete deck is being used.
      

    ; counterfeit

     Most often used in community card games, a card appearing on the board that doesn't change the value of one's own hand, but that makes it much more likely for an opponent to tie or beat you, often because it duplicates what was previously a valuable card in your hand.  Also "duplicate".  See counterfeit.
    

    ; cow

     A player with whom one is sharing a buy-in, with the intent to split the result after play.  To "go cow" is to make such an arrangement.
    

    ; crossfire

     See "whipsaw".
    

    ; crying call

     A call made reluctantly on the last betting round with the expectation of losing (but with some remote hope of catching a bluff).
    

    ; cutoff

     The seat immediately to the right of the dealer button.  Also "pone".
    Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Poker jargon starting with C."
    Top     

    Speed of light
    (From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
    Overview
    
According to standard modern physical theory, light and all other electromagnetic radiation propagates (or moves) at a constant speed in vacuum, the speed of light. It is a physical constant and notated as  (from the Latin celeritas, "speed"). Regardless of the reference frame of an observer or the velocity of the object emitting the light, every observer will obtain the same value for the speed of light upon measurement.  No  information can travel faster than  without causing serious problems with causality that have not been observed.
    
The value is precisely
    

     c = 2.997 924 58 × 108 metres per second,
    

    or about thirty centimetres (12 inches) in a nanosecondsecond. This is not an empirical value -- in 1983 the metre was redefined to give c precisely this value, chosen to be approximately the same as the previous value. It gives a solution to the wave equation, and can be calculated from the permittivity of free space () and the permeability of free space (). In fact
    

    

    Constant in all Reference Frames
    
It is important to realize that the speed of light is not a "speed limit" in the conventional sense. As a consequence of the theory of special relativity, all observers will measure the speed of light as being the same. An observer chasing a beam of light well measure it moving away from him at the same speed as a stationary observer.  This leads to some unusual consequences for velocities.
    
We are accustomed to the additive rule of velocities: if two cars approach each other, each travelling at a speed of 50 miles per hour, we expect that each car will perceive the other as approaching at a combined speed of  miles per hour (to a very high degree of accuracy).
    
At velocities approaching or at the speed of light, however, it becomes clear from experimental results that this additive rule no longer applies. Two spaceships approaching each other, each travelling at 90% the speed of light relative to some third observer between them, do not perceive each other as approaching at 90 + 90 = 180% the speed of light; instead they each perceive the other as approaching at slightly less than 99.5% the speed of light.
    
This last result is given by the Einstein velocity addition formula:
    

     
    

    where  and  are the speeds of the spaceships relative to the observer, and  is the speed perceived by each spaceship.
    
Contrary to our usual intuitions, regardless of the speed at which one observer is moving relative to another observer, both will measure the speed of an incoming light beam as the same constant value, the speed of light.
    
Albert Einstein developed the theory of relativity by applying the (somewhat bizarre) consequences of the above to classical mechanics.
Experimental confirmations of the theory of relativity directly and indirectly confirm that the velocity of light has a constant magnitude, independent of the motion of the observer.
    
Since the speed of light in vacuum is constant, it is convenient to measure both time and distance in terms of . Both the SI unit of length and SI unit of time have been defined in terms of wavelengths and cycles of light. In particular, a meter is defined as exactly c/299792458 * 1 second. This relies on the constancy of the velocity of light for all observers.
Distances in physical experiment or astronomy are commonly measured in light seconds, light minutes, or light years.
    

    Refraction
    
In passing through materials, light is slowed to less than , by the ratio called the refractive index of the material.   The speed of light in air is only slightly less than . Denser media such as water and glass can slow light much more, to fractions such as 3/4 and 2/3 of .
On the microscopic scale this is caused by continual absorption and re-emission of the photons that compose the light by the atoms or molecules through which it is passing.
    

    "Faster-than-light" experiments
    
Recent experimental evidence shows that it is possible for the group velocity of light to exceed c. One experiment made the group velocity of laser beams travel for extremely short distances through caesium atoms at 300 times . However, it is not possible to use this technique to transfer information faster than ; the product of the group velocity and the velocity of information transfer is equal to the square of the normal speed of light in the material. 
    
Exceeding the group velocity of light in this manner is comparable to exceeding the speed of sound by arranging people in a distantly spaced line of people, and asking them all to shout "I'm here!", one after another with short intervals, each one timing it by looking at their own wristwatch so they don't have to wait until they hear the last person shouting. 
    
The speed of light may also appear to be exceeded in some phenomena involving evanescent waves. Again, it is not possible that information is transmitted faster than .
    
See also: tachyon
    

    "Slower-Than-Light" (i.e. slowing light) Experiments
    
In 1999, a team of scientists led by Lene Hau were able to slow the speed of a light beam to about 61 km/h. In 2001, they were able to momentarily stop a beam. See Bose-Einstein condensate for more information.

    History
    
Galileo Galilei as far as we know was the first person to suspect that light might have a finite speed and attempt to measure it-but people before Galileo probably thought of lights (i.e. stars, suns) as constants anyway.   He wrote about his unsuccessful attempt using lanterns flashed from hill to hill outside Florence. The speed of light was first measured in 1676, some decades after Galileo's attempt, by Rømer, who was studying the motions of Jupiter's moonss. A plaque at the Observatory of Paris, where the Danish astronomer happened to be working, commemorates what was, in effect, the first measurement of a universal quantity made on this planet. Rømer published his result, which had an error of 10-25%, in Journal des Scavans. 
    
It is a bizarre coincidence that the average speed of the earth in its orbit is very close to one ten-thousandth of this, actually within less than a percent. This gives a hint as to how Rømer measured light's speed. He was recording eclipses of Jupiter's moon Io: every day or two Io would go into Jupiter's shadow and later emerge from it. Rømer could see Io blink off and then later blink on, if Jupiter happened to be visible. Io's orbit seemed to be a kind of distant clock, but one which Rømer discovered ran fast while Earth was approaching Jupiter and slow while it was receding from the giant planet. Roemer measured the cumulative effect: by how much it eventually got ahead and then eventually fell behind. He explained the measured variation by positing a finite velocity for light.

    See also
    
Fizeau-Foucault Apparatus, Galileo Galilei, Michelson Morley experiment
    

    External links and References
    








    Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Speed of light."
    Top     

    Vitamin C
    (From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)
    
Vitamin C, the L-enantiomer of ascorbic acid, is a water-soluble vitamin used by the body for several purposes. Most animals can synthesize their own vitamin C, but some animals, including primates, guinea pigs, and humans, cannot. Vitamin C was first isolated in 1928, and in 1932 it was proved to be the agent which prevents scurvy.
    

    Discovery and History
    
The need to include fresh plant food in the diet to prevent disease was known intuitively from ancient times although has often been overlooked. Native peoples living in marginal areas incorporated this into their medicinal lore. For example infusions of pine needles are used in the arctic zone or the leaves from species of drought resistant trees in desert areas. 
    
Through history the benefit of plant food for the survival of sieges and long sea voyages was recommended by enlightened authorities. 
In the seventeenth century Richard Woodall, a ships surgeon to the East India Company, recommended the use of lemon juice as a preventive and cure in his book ‘Surgeon's Mate’ 
The early eighteenth century Dutch writer, Johannes Bachstrom gave the firm opinion that 'scurvy is solely owing to a total abstinence from fresh vegetable food, and greens; which is alone the primary cause of the disease.’ 
    
The first attempt to give scientific basis for the cause of scurvy was by a  ships surgeon in the British Royal Navy, James Lind, who at sea in May 1747 provided some crew members with lemon juice in addition to normal rations while others continued on normal rations alone. In the history of science this is considered to be the first example of a controlled experiment comparing results on two populations  of a factor applied to one group only with all other factors the same. The results conclusively showed that lemons prevented the disease. Lind wrote up his work and published it in 1753. 
    
Lind’s work was slow to be noticed, partly because he gave conflicting evidence within the book and partly because of social inertia in some elements at the British admiralty who saw care for the well being of ships’ crew as a sign of weakness. It was 1795 before the British navy adopted lemon or lime juice as standard issue at sea.
    
In the early twentieth century the Polish American scientist Casimir Funk conducted research into deficiency diseases and in 1912 formulated the concept of vitamins, for the elements in food which are essential to health. 
Then in  the years 1928 to 1933 the Hungarian biochemist , Albert Szent-Gyorgyi and independently the American Charles Glen King first isolated Vitamin C and showed it to be ascorbic acid .
    
In 1933/1934, the British chemists Sir Walter Norman Haworth and Sir Edmund Hirst and independantly the Polish Tadeus Reichstein succeeded in synthesizing the vitamin, the first to be artificially produced. This made possible the cheap artificial production of vitamin C. Haworth was awarded the 1937 Nobel Prize for chemistry largely for this work.
    
In 1959 the American J.J. Burns showed that the reason why some mammals were susceptible to scurvy was due to the inability of their livers to produce the active enzyme, L-gulonolactone oxidase, which is the last of the chain of four enzymes which synthesise ascorbic acid.

    Sources
    

    Plant sources
     -   Citrus fruits (lime, lemon, orange, grapefruit) and tomatoes are good common sources of vitamin C. Other foods that are good sources of vitamin C include papaya, broccoli, brussels sprouts, blackcurrants, strawberries, cauliflower, spinach, cantaloupe, and kiwifruit.
    
The amount of Vitamin C in foods of plant origin  depends on the precise variety of the plant, the soil and climate in which it grew, the length of time since it was picked and the method of preparation. Cooking in particular destroys Vitamin C.
    

    The following table is approximate and shows the relative abundance in different sources.
    

    

    

    											
Table Showing Relative Abundance of Vitamin C in Principal Fruits and some Raw Vegetables											
    	Fruit		Mg vitamin C per 100 grams of fruit		Fruit     Continued		Mg vitamin C per 100 grams of fruit		Fruit      Continued 		Mg vitamin C per 100 grams of fruit
    

    	CamuCamu		2800		Lemon		40		Grape		10

    	Rosehip		2000		Melon, cantaloupe		40		Apricot		10

    	Acerola		1600		Cauliflower		40		Plum		10

    	Jujube		500		Grapefruit		30		Watermelon		10

    	Baobab		400		Raspberry		30		Banana		9

    	Blackcurrant		200		Tangerine/ Mandarin oranges		30		Carrot		9

    	Guava		100		Passion fruit		30		Avocado		8

    	Kiwifruit		90		Spinach		30		Crabapple		8

    	Broccoli		90		Cabbage Raw green 		30		Peach		7

    	Loganberry		80		Lime		20		Apple		6

    	Redcurrant		80		Mango		20		Blackberry		6

    	Brussels sprouts		80		Melon, honeydew		20		Beetroot		5

    	Lychee		70		Raspberry		20		Pear		4

    	Persimmon		60		Tomato		10		Lettuce		4

    	Papaya		60		Blueberry		10		Cucumber		3

    	Strawberry		50		Pineapple		10		Fig		2

    	Orange		50		Pawpaw		10		Bilberry		1
										

    

    Animal Sources
    
Most species of animals synthesise their own vitamin C. It is therefore not a vitamin for them . Synthesis in achieved through a sequence of enzyme driven steps, which convert glucose to ascorbic acid. It is carried out either in the kidneys, in reptiles and birds, or the liver, in mammals and perching birds. The loss of an enzyme concerned with ascorbic acid synthesis has occurred quite frequently in evolution and has affected at least some fish, many birds; some bats, guinea pigs  and most but not all primates, including Man. The mutations have not been lethal because ascorbic acid is so prevalent in the surrounding food sources.
    

     
Table Showing Abundance of Vitamin C in Raw Animal Tissue 

    	Animal tissue		Mg vitamin C per 100 grams of tissue

    	Beef liver		31

    	Oysters		30

    	Pork liver		23

    	Calf liver	 	36

    


    Artificial chemical synthesis
         Vitamin C is produced from glucose by two main routes. The Reichstein process developed in the 1930s uses a single pre fermentation followed by a purely chemical route. The Two step fermentation process, was originally developed in China in the 1960s ,  uses additional fermentation to replace part of the later chemical stages.  Both processes yield approx. 60% Vitamin C from the glucose feed.
Main producers are
BASF/ Takeda , Roche, Merck, Peoples Republic of China.
    

    Functions of Vitamin C in the Body
    
As a participant in hydroxylation, vitamin C is needed for the production of collagen in the connective tissue. These fibres are ubiquitous throughout the body; providing firm but flexible structure. Some tissuess have a greater percentage of collagen, including:
Vitamin C is also required for synthesis of dopamine, noradrenaline and adrenaline in the nervous system or in the adrenal glands. It is a strong antioxidant. 
    
Lack of ascorbic acid in the daily diet leads to a disease
called scurvy, a form of avitaminosis that is characterized by:

    

    Daily Requirement
    
The dietary amounts recommended by various authorities are 50-150 mg of ascorbic acid per day. High doses (thousands of mg) are used but may result in diarrhea. Any excess of vitamin C is generally excreted in the urine.
    

In April 1998 Nature reported alleged carcinogenic and teratogenic effects of excessive doses of vitamin C. This was given a great deal of prominence in the world's media. The effects were noted in test tube experiments, and on only two of the 20 markers of free radical damage to DNA. They have not been supported by further evidence from living organisms. Almost all mammals manufacture their own Vitamin C in their livers  in amounts equivalent to human doses of thousands of mg per day. The vitamin is used widely in orthomolecular medicine and no harmful effects have been reported even in doses of 10,000 mg per day or more. 
    


    Theraputic Uses
    
Vitamin C is needed in the diet to prevent scurvy. It also has a reputation for being useful in the treatment of colds and flu. The evidence to support this idea, however, is ambiguous and the effect may depend on the dose size and dosing regime.
    
Fred R. Klenner, M.D., of Reidsville, North Carolina reported in 1949 that Poliomyelitis yielded to Vitamin C. 
    
Nobel Prize winning chemist Linus Pauling began actively promoting vitamin C in the 1960s as a means to greatly improve human health and resistance to disease.
    
A minority of medical and scientific opinion continues to see vitamin C as being a low cost and safe way to treat infectious disease and to deal with a wide range of poisons. A megadose of one-half gram per pound of body weight per day of sodium ascorbate salt has been found of theraputic use in both human and veterinary treatments. SARS and rabies are reported to respond to massive dosages. C is useful in treating herpes and many other viruses.
    

It is possible that the wider adoption of Vitamin C for therapeutic use is hindered by the fact that it cannot now be patented. This makes pharmaceutical companies unwilling to fund research or promotion of a substance in which they stand to make little profit and which will compete with some of their own profitable patented medicines.
    Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Vitamin C."
    Top     
    Abbreviations & Acronyms: C
    The following table is compiled from various sources, across various languages. When English abbreviations or acronyms come from a non-English source, this is noted.
    EntrySourceExpressionField
    C
    		DutchToonaard van C(= do)grote terts,C,groot,C majeurN/A
    C
    		EnglishSnowN/A
    C
    		FinnishC-kieliComputing
    C
    		FrenchPêche côtièreN/A
    C
    		GermanChefN/A
    C
    		Greekυπό συνθήκηComputing
    C
    		ItalianLinguaggio CComputing
    C
    		PortugueseLinguagem CComputing
    C
    		SpanishLenguaje CComputing
    C I CDutchControle en Informatie CentrumN/A
    B P T C AEnglishBest practical technology currently availableNuclear Energy & Physics
    ADN cFrenchADN complémentaireMedicine
    C p mGreekκρούσεις ανά λεπτόMechanical Engineering, Meteorology & Standards
    C p mItalianImpulsi al minutoMechanical Engineering, Meteorology & Standards
    Source: compiled by the editor, based on several corpora (additional references).
    Top     
    Synonyms: C
    Synonyms: a hundred (adj), celsius (adj), centigrade (adj), hundred (adj), one hundred (adj), ampere-second (n), atomic number 6 (n), carbon (n), centred (n), century (n), cocain (n), cocaine (n), coke (n), coulomb (n), degree Celsius (n), degree Centigrade (n), light speed (n), one C (n), snow (n), speed of light (n). (additional references)
    Antonym: fahrenheit (adj). (additional references)
    Top     
    Crosswords: C
    English words defined with "c": A B C, a hundred thousand, Albert Szent-Gyorgyi, Albert von Szent-Gyorgyi, alto clef ♦ bass clef, blood heat, body temperature ♦ C clef, C compiler, C program, C spring, C.P.U., Cartesion oval, C-clamp, cedilla, celsius, centigrade, Counter-tenor clef, cryogen ♦ Distributive operation, dry ice, Dur ♦ Exogen ♦ F clef, Four-way cock ♦ G clef ♦ Haworth, historical school, hundred thousand ♦ indefinite integral ♦ join ♦ lowercase ♦ oeil de boeuf ♦ performance, plus ♦ sale, Sir Walter Norman Haworth, soprano clef, Space of four dimensions, steam boiler, sum, Szent-Gyorgyi ♦ tenor clef, treble clef ♦ Union ♦ viola clef. (references)
    Specialty definitions using "c": Activated Protein C Resistance, ALGOL C, ANSI C ♦ BUNKER C FUEL OIL ♦ C Beautifier, C Language Integrated Production System, C Programmer's Disease, C sharp, C shell, C with Classes, Classic C, Clostridium perfringens type C infection, Coherent Parallel C, Concurrent Object-Oriented C ♦ GNU C, GNU C Library ♦ Harvest C, Hepatitis C Antibodies, Hepatitis C, Chronic ♦ Influenzavirus C, ISO C ♦ Medicare Part C, Modular C ♦ Objective C ♦ Paralation C, Parallel C, porcine endogenous retrovirus C, Protein C Inhibitor, Protein Kinase C ♦ Rationalized C, Refined C, Retroviruses Type C, Avian ♦ Succinate Cytochrome c Oxidoreductase ♦ Think C, Turbo C ♦ Vector C, Visual C  . (references)
    Non-English Usage: "C" is also a word in the following languages with English translations in parentheses.
    Chinese (C&C), German (c), Portuguese (C language, corrosive), Spanish (c), Swedish (c).
    Top     
    Modern Usage: C
    DomainUsage
    Screenplays
    We would have injected vitamin C if only they had made it illegal (Trainspotting; writing credit: Irvine Welsh; John Hodge)
    With a capital C and that rhymes with Z and that stands for Zom bie. (Hysterical; writing credit: Chris Bearde; Bill Hudson)
    I think it's T double E double R double I double F double I double C C C C C (Charlotte's Web; writing credit: E.B. White; Earl Hamner Jr.)
    That's not heaven, that's the C train (Daredevil; writing credit: Mark Steven Johnson)
    Twenty C Energizers (Do the Right Thing; writing credit: Spike Lee)
    Lyrics
    
D G C D (I Ain't Marching Anymore; performing artist: Phil Ochs)
    Movie/TV Titles
    B oder C A (1962)
    C 12 H 22 O 11 - Auf den Spuren des Lebens (1958)
    Three for Bedroom C (1952)
    Snoring in High C (1916)
    Circle C Ranch Wedding Present (1910)
    Song Titles
    A B C (performing artist: The Jackson Five)
    Source: compiled by the editor from various references; see credits.
    Top     
    Commercial Usage: C
    DomainTitle
    References
    • A & C Black Plc.: International Competitive Benchmarks and Financial Gap Analysis (reference)
    • AB C F Berg & Co: International Competitive Benchmarks and Financial Gap Analysis (reference)
    • F & C Latin American Investment Trust PLC: International Competitive Benchmarks and Financial Gap Analysis (reference)
    • Big C Supercenter Public Co. Ltd.: International Competitive Benchmarks and Financial Gap Analysis (reference)
    • Isaacs I C & Company, Inc.: International Competitive Benchmarks and Financial Gap Analysis (reference)
      (more reference examples)
      
    Books
    • C Programming Language (2nd Edition) (reference)
      (more book examples)
      
    Periodicals
      
    Theater & Movies
    • C and I - Careless & Imprudent (White Knuckle Extreme) (reference)
    • Headline Stories of the 20th C (reference)
    • Invitation to Poland (ES) DVD Volume A B C - Episode 1-15 (reference)
    • Concert at Saint-Severin - Mozart Mass in C Major / Pergolesi Stabat Mater (reference)
    • Bach - Musical Offering in C Minor / Kuijken (reference)
      (more DVD examples; more video examples)
      
    Music
    • In Memoriam/Reclere/Alsea/Concerto C (reference)
    • Cocoon Compilation C (reference)
    • Ludwig van Beethoven: Mass In C Major/Elegiac Song/Calm Sea & Prosperous Voyage (reference)
    • Bach: Fantasia in C minor; Two-Part Inventions; Three-Part Inventions; Chromatic Fantasia & Fugue (reference)
    • Psychoactive Beats: Continuously Mixed History of Sleepy C (reference)
      (more classical music examples; more popular music examples)
      
    High Tech
      
    Consumer Goods
    Source: compiled by the editor from various references; see credits.
    Top     
    Image Slideshow: C
    Photos:
    C
    More pictures...
    Illustrations:
    C
    More pictures...
    Top     
    Photo Album: C
    ThumbnailDescription & CreditThumbnailDescription & Credit
    This image depicts cytochrome c which is a small protein used in the electron transfer chain. Computer graphics are made by utilizing data fed into a computer. This data may consist of chemical weights and measures and the structure of specific elements. A three-dimensional image can be made so one can visualize on otherwise minute structure. Credit: Dr.  Richard Feldmann (photographer).
    Pie chart showing causes of chronic liver disease in residents of Jefferson County, Alabama.  Hepatitis B and hepatitis C viruses contributed to the majority of cases of chronic liver disease in this population. Credit: CDC.
    Transmission electron micrograph of influenza C virus. Credit: CDC.
    "Velocity Field for a Stream" by Tom Tredon.  Use DPGraph's Scrollbar to vary A (one river bank), B (the other river bank), or C (the speed of the stream).  Click on Edit inside DPGraph for more info.
    Columbia III - C. Credit: NASA.
    Dr. Robert Dietz of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography discussing scientifi c findings of the International Indian Ocean Expedition on board the USC&GS Ship  PIONEER at Colombo, Ceylon.  Dr. Dietz coined the term "sea-floor spreading" a few years earlier to describe the process of seafloor accretion at active oceanic ridges. Credit: Sailing for Science - the NOAA Fleet Then and Now.
    Figure 52 (end).  Instructions to finders of the floats used by the Oceanographi c Society of the Gulf of Gascogne.  These instructions were used by the steamer l'ANDRE'E in 1906. Credit: Sailing for Science - the NOAA Fleet Then and Now.
    13-meter GOES C antenna in foreground, 11-meter special purpose antenna, and 18-meter GOES B  antenna in background. Credit: NOAA in Space.
    Senior Airman Erik Eigenmen, an Air National Guardsman with the 152nd Aerial Port Flight, Reno, Nev., directs equipment movement during the 14th Air Expeditionary Wing IGX5A, Nov. 1, at the Mississippi National Guard's Gulfport Combat Readiness Training C.
    District Conservationist Carman Westerfield and Leesa Woodall, Executive Director for Lamar County Exposition Authority tour the Barnsville Recreation Center.  The trail and center serve as an outdoor classroom and has a nature trail through natural and c. Credit: Jeff Vanuga.
    Source: pictures compiled by the editor from various references; see picture credits.
    Top     
    Digital Photo Gallery: C
     
    "C O N V E R G E" by Kevin C
    Commentary: "I had my friend brian bang some sticks with embers together at night, some of what you see is the resulting sparks, some is the swinging embers.  ah yet another memory from senior survival!  visit my manip site:  blindgorgon.deviantart ..."    		"Water tower and john hancock c" by Conrad C.
    Commentary: "Pictures of water tower and john hancock center."

    Source: photographs selected by the editor, with permission from the photographers.
    Top     
    Sounds Captioned with "C".
    PlayCaptionPlayCaption
    Contrapuntal piano work typical of a C. PE Bach style.A high C played on a piano.
    Source: compiled by the editor from various references; see credits.
    Top     
    Use in Literature: C
    TitleAuthorQuote
    Les Miserables
    Hugo, Victor
    The ordinary conventicles of the Friends of the A B C were held in a back room of the Cafe Musain
    Source: compiled by the editor from various references.
    Top     
    Non-Fiction Usage: C
    SubjectTopicQuote
    Health
    Many people with hepatitis C don't have symptoms. (references)
    You could get hepatitis C by sharing drug needles. (references)
    Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) supplements have the same effect. (references)
    Business
    End-users in segment C decide purchases of office furniture based primarily on price. (references)
    Firms that supply segment C exhibit at major trade shows, such as FEMATEC and ExpoMuebles. (references)
    Chance of developing chronic liver diseases is higher in hepatitis C patients than hepatitis B patients. (references)
    Economic History
    South Africa
    See Appendix C for a listing of trade journals. (references)
    Israel
    Area C - 2 years full tax holiday plus five years at reduced rates. (references)
    Malaysia
    Appendix C lists investment incentives in the manufacturing sector. (references)
    Human Rights
    Bangladesh
    There are three classes of cells: A, B, and C. Common criminals and low-level political workers generally are held in C cells, which often have dirt floors, no furnishings, and poor quality food. (references)
    Trade
    Japan
    The Import Declaration Form (Customs Form C 5020) is filled out by the importer and is used as both an import declaration and tax payment declaration form. (references)
    Slovak Rep
    The Directive on Technical Products temporarily moves a number of products, such as electrical equipment, chemicals, cosmetics, textiles, toys, machines and food products from module A into modules B + C and C. (references)
    Lexicography
    Devil's Dictionary
    		BRUTE, n.  See :HUSBAND:. C
    Source: compiled by the editor from ICON Group International, Inc.; see credits.
    Top     
    Speeches: C
    SpeakerTermPhrase(s)
    Jimmy Carter
    		1977-1981Regulations implementing subtitle C of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act were issued.
    Source: compiled by the editor from various references.
    Top     
    Usage Frequency: C
    "C" is generally used as an alphabetical symbol -- approximately 74.39% of the time. "C" is used about 16,513 times out of a sample of 100 million words spoken or written in English. Its rank is based on over 700,000 words used in the English language. Some parts-of-speech are not covered due to the samples used by the British National Corpus. (note: percents less than one-hundredth of one percent have been omitted)
    Parts of SpeechPercentUsage per
    100 Million Words    		Rank in English
    Alphabetical Symbol74.39%12,284749 
    Noun (proper)17.42%2,8773,230 
    Adverb (general)3.23%53311,519 
    Unclassified Items3.12%51511,788 
    Cardinal Number1.83%30316,643 
                        Total100.00%16,513N/A
    Source: compiled by the editor from several corpora; see credits.
    Top     
    Usage in Company Names: C
    CountryNameCountryName
    Japan
    C TWO-NETWORK Co., Ltd
    		South Korea
    Dong San C & G Ltd.
    Sweden
    AB C F Berg & Co
    		Thailand
    Big C Supercenter Public Co. Ltd.
    United Kingdom
    A & C Black Plc.
    		USA
    C & D Technologies Incorporated
     (more examples...)  
    Source: compiled by the editor from Icon Group International, Inc.
    Top     
    Expressions: C
    Expressions using "c": 1 c ♦ A B C ♦ A B C book ♦ actinomycin C ♦ Activated Protein C Resistance ♦ algol C ♦ ANSI C ♦ Apolipoproteins C ♦ appendix C ♦ association of C and C++ Users ♦ b c ♦ big C ♦ BW 284 C 51 ♦ C (ANSI) ♦ C Acinos ♦ C acutifolia ♦ C adamanteus ♦ C aestivus ♦ C alba ♦ C albifrons ♦ C alosa ♦ C amara ♦ C Americana ♦ C Americanum ♦ C Americanus ♦ C and W ♦ C angustifolia ♦ C annuum ♦ C anthus ♦ C apella ♦ C apricarius or pluvialis ♦ C aquaticus ♦ C arvensis ♦ C arwensis ♦ C atlanis ♦ C Aurantium ♦ C auritus ♦ C australis ♦ C avellana ♦ C Bactrianus ♦ C battery ♦ C Beautifier ♦ C Betulus ♦ C biflora ♦ C Bonduc ♦ C Bonducella ♦ C borealis ♦ C Braziliensis ♦ C Calcitrapa ♦ C Californica ♦ C Canadensis ♦ C capsularis ♦ C carcharias ♦ C Carolinensis ♦ C caudatus ♦ C cerasiforme ♦ C ceti ♦ C Chamaecrista ♦ C chrysopus ♦ C ciliatus ♦ C clef ♦ C clupeiformis ♦ C coerulescens ♦ C Columbianus ♦ C commune ♦ C communis ♦ C compiler ♦ C cornuta ♦ C Coromandelica ♦ C corone ♦ C crinitus ♦ C crista ♦ C cyaneus ♦ C dama ♦ C diversifolius ♦ C documents ♦ c Dominicans or Black Friars ♦ C dominicus ♦ C Draco ♦ C edule ♦ C edulis ♦ C ellipticus ♦ C erythrophthalmus ♦ C fallax ♦ C familiaris ♦ C Farseri ♦ C fastigiatum ♦ C fatuellus ♦ C ferus ♦ C finta ♦ c flat ♦ C florida ♦ C frutescens ♦ C fuliginosus ♦ C G S ♦ C G T ♦ C gauge ♦ C glabra ♦ C gorgon ♦ C harengus ♦ C hircus. Additional references.
    Hyphenated Usage
    Beginning with "c": C-1, C-10, C-2, C-3, c-an, C-anca, c-apolipoproteins, c-apoprotein, c-apoproteins, c-axis, c-band, c-banded, c-banding, c-bands, c-based, C-BC, c-boundary, c-bus, C-C, c-ca, c-came, C-canopy, C-cap, c-car, c-casting, C-c-cambridge, c-c-car, c-c-c-ares, c-c-c-corrupts, C-c-common, c-certainly, C-chase, c-citrulline, C-clamp, c-class, C-co, c-come, c-controls, c-cor, C-cotton, c-could, c-couple, C-cube, c-d, c-dash, c-deck, C-DNA, c-drawer, C-d-xylose, C-e, c-enrichment, c-erb, c-erbB-2, c-erminal, C-factor, c-fica, c-file, c-files, c-film, c-fizz, C-form, c-formation, c-fos, c-four, C-ftba, c-fyqs, C-gevs, c-grade, c-Ha-ras, c-helices, c-helix, c-h-i-l-d, C-horizon, c-in-c, C-Interp, C-i-s, C-isam, c-isotope, C-jam, C-jun, c-ki-ras, c-kit receptor, C-lab, c-labelled, c-labelling, c-language, C-Like, c-like, C-Linda, C-machines, c-majorish, c-mos, c-movies, c-myb, c-myc, c-myc-er, c-myc-induced, c-mye, C-N, C-Net, c-note, C-O, C-odeScript, c-onc, c-op, c-operation, c-oriented, c-pawn, C-Peptide, c-pillar, c-pillars, C-plane, c-plus, c-polysaccharide, C-Prolog, c-r-a-p, c-ras, C-ration, C-Reactive, C-reactive protein, c-r-e-a-m-s, C-Refine, c-reg, c-registration, c-rich, c-routines, c-sat, C-scape, C-Scheme, C-scope, C-section, c-series, c-serotonin, c-shape, C-shaped, c-shell, c-shield, c-sis, c-site, C-span, c-spanner, c-spanners, C-stat, c-super, C-terminal, c-terminally, c-termini, c-terminus, c-type, c-u-r, c-ura, c-urea, C-V, C-V, c-vit, C-wing, c-word, c-words.
    Ending with "c": a-c, Ansi-c, c-in-c, Cnaps-c, Cpi-c, Cytosine-c, E-c.
    Containing "c": R-s-p-c-a.
    Source: compiled by the editor from various references; see credits.
    Top     
    Frequency of Internet Keywords: C
    The following statistics estimate the number of searches per day across the major English-language search engines as identified by various trade publications. Hyperlinks lead to commercial use of the expression at Amazon.com.
     
    ExpressionFrequency
    per Day    		ExpressionFrequency
    per Day
    c
    		23,716
    olympus c 4000
    		369
    hepatitis c
    		3,638
    c section
    		366
    vitamin c
    		3,109
    c silver
    		357
    control control r c radio rc remote
    		1,201
    vitamin c lyrics
    		351
    array c insert into programming string
    		1,200
    olympus c 740
    		341
    melanie c
    		761
    cellex c
    		339
    r c car
    		742
    c lewis
    		330
    c net
    		726
    c tutorial
    		329
    c compiler
    		660
    c c
    		326
    olympus c 750
    		660
    c tungsten
    		325
    c programming
    		627
    washington d c
    		322
    hep c
    		585
    washington d c hotel
    		311
    c murder
    		583
    class c motor home
    		308
    turbo c
    		530
    d c
    		307
    c reactive protein
    		502
    c fina michael
    		305
    c walk
    		479
    c 50 olympus
    		297
    c objective unicode
    		421
    r c airplane
    		296
    5050 c olympus
    		416
    mercedes benz c class
    		286
    c c general
    		382
    vico c
    		256
    r c
    		380
    graduation vitamin c
    		255
    Source: compiled by the editor from various references; see credits.
    Top     
    Modern Translation: C
    Language Translations for "c"; alternative meanings/domain in parentheses.
    Danish
    		  
    C-vitaminmangelsyndrom (vitamin C deficiency-syndrome), Fællesskabets handlingsprogram til fordel for handicappede (Community action programme for disabled people.(H andicapped people in the E C l iving i ndependently in an o pen s ociety), HELIOS), hydraulisk flyveaske (cementitious fly ash, class C fly ash), Hepatitis C virus (Hepatitis C virus), G-C-procent (DNA base composition, mol percent G + C, mol percent guanine + cytosine), fordampning ved 20 grader C er ubetydelig;en skadelig koncentration af partikler i luften kan imidlertid nåes hurtigt (be reached quickly, evaporation at 20 degrees C is negligible;a harmful concentration of airborne particles can, however), fordampning ved 20 grader C er ubetydelig;en koncentration af partikler i luften,der forårsager gener,kan imidlertid nås hurtigt (be reached quickly, evaporation at 20 degrees C is negligible;a nuisance causing concentration of airborne particles can, however), for trods omdannelsestraegheden at opnaa en ferritisk-perlitisk struktur,afkoeles staalet paa forudbestemt maade:luftafkoeling til 670 grader C,2 timers holdetid og derefter luftafkoeling (held at 670 C for 2 h and then air cooled, in order to obtain a ferrite-pearlite structure, in spite of the slow transformation rate, the steel must be cooled), foerst ved anloebning ved 750 grader C indtraeder en saa staerk vaekst af karbiderne,at de bliver lysmikroskopisk synlige (after tempering at 750 C does marked coarsening of the carbides occur, so that the carbide particles can be seen under the optical microscope), i praksis anloebes disse sejhaerdningsstaal ved temperaturer mellem 530 grader og 670 grader C (for industrial use, these heat treatable steels are tempered af temperatures between 530 and 670 C), Fællesskabsprogram inden for telekommunikationsteknologi-forskning og udvikling inden for avanceret kommunikationsteknologi i Europa (Community programme in the field of telecommunications technologies-r esearch and development(R&D)in a dvanced c ommunications technologies in E urope), i staalet med det laveste kulstofindhold paa 0,22 % findes cementitten inden i de stoerste tidligere martensitnaale som yderst fine stave;i korngraenserne mellem naalene,hvor den forekommer vaesentlig rigeligere,er stavene grovere (in the steel containing the lowest carbon content of 0.22 % C, the cementite is formed as very thin rods within the larger prior martensite needles: at the needle boundaries it occurs condsiderably more frequently and in thicker particles), efter anloebning til 400 grader C ser strukturen grynet ud paa grund af tilstedevaerelse af grove karbidpartikler (after temyering at 400 C, the structure appears roughened due to the coarse form of the carbides), efter afkoeling fra 870 grader C til 500 grader C paa 20 s er bainitten finere og opblandet med martensitoeer (after cooling from 870 C to 500 C in 20 s, finer bainite is formed interspersed with regions of martensite), det til haardhedsskalaen HRN anvendte indtrykslegeme er identisk med det til HRC anvendte (the indentor used for the N scales is identical to that used in the Rockwell C diamond), det som kedelstaal velegnede manganstaal bliver foer anvendelsen normaliseret ved 880 grader til 910 grader C og spaendingsfrigloedet mellem 530 grader og 620 grader C (is normalized industrially at 880 to 9l0 C and is then stress relieved between 550 and 620 oC, suitable for boiler plates, them manganese steel), den maksimale vævsdosis fra 14 C frigjort op til 1958 vil give en maksimal dosishastighed på 0,5 mrad/år (the maximum tissue dose from C 14 released up to 1958 will give a maximum radiation dose ( m. r. d. ) of mrad - year), avitaminosis C (vitamin C deficiency-syndrome), Rockwell-C haardheden (Rockwell hardness B, Rockwell hardness C), ved austenitiseringstemperaturen 1270 grader C kan der allerede lokalt optraede begyndende smeltning (at an austenitising temperature of l270 C the first indications of melting can be observed in some places), ved 600 grader C er udskillelseshastigheden endnu lav (the precipitation rate at 600 C is quite slow), UV-C stråling (short-wave ultraviolet radiation, short-wavelength ultraviolet radiation, ultraviolet C, ultraviolet C radiation), umættet C-atom (unsaturated C atom, unsaturated carbon atom), ultraviolet-C stråling (short-wave ultraviolet radiation, short-wavelength ultraviolet radiation, ultraviolet C, ultraviolet C radiation), standard-lystype (standard illuminant, white C), som det fremgaar af et snit ved 17 % Cr i det ternaere jern-chromkulstofdiagram,befinder staalet sig over ca.1000 grader C i tofaseomraadet:ferrit og austenit (above approximately 1ooO c, according to the section through the iron-chromium-carbon ternary equilibrium diagram at 17% Cr the steel lies in the two phase region, ferrite and austenite), sne (snow), hydrostatiske kurver (hydrostatic curves, The variations of ship hydrostatic data with draught are shown by a set of curves.Extremely useful in the assessment of end draughts and the stability of a ship in various conditions of loading.The calculations for such curves are now normally made by a c), Sølv C (Silver C), ved varmbearbejdning ved 1100 grader til 900 grader C aendres det ledeburitiske karbidnetvaerk (the structure of the ledeburitic carbide eutectic network is altered by hot deformation at ll00 to 900 C), Rockwell-B haardheden (Rockwell hardness B, Rockwell hardness C), Programmet for faglig bistand til Samfundet af Uafhængige Stater (Programme for t echnical a ssistance to the C ommonwealth of I ndependent S tates, TACIS), person med samtidig hiv-og hepatitis C-infektion (HIV-hepatitis C virus-coinfected people), man skal justere udluftningen paa en saadan maade,at inholdet i beholderen C holdes konstant i opslemmet tilstand,og at det minimale oploeste itlindhold er 2 mg pr liter (the rate of aeration should be regulated so that the contents of vessel C are kept constantly in suspension while the dissolved oxygen content is at least 2mg/litre), luftkoeling fra 910 grader til 940 grader C,derpaa anloebning og afspaendingsgloedning mellem 650 grader og 720 grader C (air cooling from 910 to 940 C, followed by tempering and stress relieving at 650 to 720 C), lanatosid C (lanatoside C), krybebrudstyrken for 100.000 h falder hurtigt ved temperaturer over 500 grader C (the 100.000 h rupture-strength decreases rapidly at temperatures above 500 C), ILS-punkt C (ILS point C), Schribners decimalkubiktabel (Scribner-decimal C rule). (various references)
       
    Dutch
    		  
    carènediagram (hydrostatic curves, The variations of ship hydrostatic data with draught are shown by a set of curves.Extremely useful in the assessment of end draughts and the stability of a ship in various conditions of loading.The calculations for such curves are now normally made by a c), co-infectie met AIDS en hepatitis C (HIV-hepatitis C virus-coinfected people), coke (bernice, bernie's flake, big C, blow, bouncing power, cadillac, champagne of drugs, charley, charlie, coke, dama blanca, flake, gold dust, green gold, happy trails, her, jam, lady, nose candy, pimp's drug, she, snow, stardust, tool, toot, uptown, white girl, white lady), Communautair actieprogramma voor gehandicapten (Community action programme for disabled people.(H andicapped people in the E C l iving i ndependently in an o pen s ociety), HELIOS), Communautaire actie voor samenwerking op economisch gebied ten voordele van Polen en Hongarije (ACE(I), Community a ction for c ooperation in the field of e conomics(ACE)in favour of Poland and Hungary), de maximale dosis van het tot 1958 vrijgekomen C 14, die door de weefsels mag worden geabsorbeerd zal leiden tot een maximale stralingsdosis van O, 5 mrad - jaar (the maximum tissue dose from C 14 released up to 1958 will give a maximum radiation dose ( m. r. d. ) of mrad - year), in staal met een koolstofgehalte van 0,22 % wordt in de martensietnaalden zeer fijne,naaldvormige cementiet gevormd.Bij de korrelgrenzen van het martensiet treedt dit vaker op dan in de kristallen en wel in de vorm van grotere deeltjes (in the steel containing the lowest carbon content of 0.22 % C, the cementite is formed as very thin rods within the larger prior martensite needles: at the needle boundaries it occurs condsiderably more frequently and in thicker particles), ILS punt C (ILS point C), hydraulische vliegas (cementitious fly ash, class C fly ash), het voor ketelplaat geschikte mangaanstaal wordt voor industriële toepassingen bij 880 tot 910 C normaalgegloeid en wordt daarna spanningsarmgegloeid tussen 550 en 620 C (is normalized industrially at 880 to 9l0 C and is then stress relieved between 550 and 620 oC, suitable for boiler plates, them manganese steel), het voor de N-schalen gebruikte indruklichaam is gelijk aan het indruklichaam dat voor de Rockwell C-proef wordt gebruikt (the indentor used for the N scales is identical to that used in the Rockwell C diamond), Hepatitis C-virus (Hepatitis C virus), door warmvervormen bij temperaturen tussen 1100 en 900deg.C wordt de structuur van het ledeburitisch carbidenrooster veranderd (the structure of the ledeburitic carbide eutectic network is altered by hot deformation at ll00 to 900 C), ascorbinezuur (ascorbic acid, vitamin C), de tijd-tot-breuk sterkte voor 100.000 h neemt bij temperaturen boven 500 C snel af (the 100.000 h rupture-strength decreases rapidly at temperatures above 500 C), lijntje (rope), de beluchting moet zodanig worden geregeld dat de inhoud van vat C constant in suspensie blijft en het gehalte aan opgeloste zuurstof ten minste 2 mg per liter bedraagt (the rate of aeration should be regulated so that the contents of vessel C are kept constantly in suspension while the dissolved oxygen content is at least 2mg/litre), bij een austenitiseringstemperatuur van 1270 deg.C kunnen plaatselijk de eerste smeltverschijnselen worden waargenomen (at an austenitising temperature of l270 C the first indications of melting can be observed in some places), bij 600 DEG.C is de precipitatiesnelheid nog gering (the precipitation rate at 600 C is quite slow), avitaminose C (vitamin C deficiency-syndrome), decimale maatstaf van Scribner (Scribner-decimal C rule), Programma voor technische bijstand aan het Gemenebest van Onafhankelijke Staten (Programme for t echnical a ssistance to the C ommonwealth of I ndependent S tates, TACIS), witte C (standard illuminant, white C), voor technische toepassingen worden deze hardbare staalsoorten ontlaten bij temperaturen tussen 530 deg.C en 670 deg.C (for industrial use, these heat treatable steels are tempered af temperatures between 530 and 670 C), volgens een doorsnijding bij 17 % Cr in het ternaire toestandsdiagram ijzer-chroom-koolstof bevindt het staal zich boven ca.1000 deg.C in een twee-fasengebied van ferriet en austeniet (above approximately 1ooO c, according to the section through the iron-chromium-carbon ternary equilibrium diagram at 17% Cr the steel lies in the two phase region, ferrite and austenite), vitamine C (ascorbic acid, vitamin C), verdamping bij 20 graden C is te verwaarlozen;een voor de gezondheid schadelijke concentratie in de lucht kan echter snel worden bereikt (be reached quickly, evaporation at 20 degrees C is negligible;a harmful concentration of airborne particles can, however), verdamping bij 20 graden C is te verwaarlozen;een hinderlijke concentratie van in de lucht aanwezige deeltjes kan echter snel worden bereikt (be reached quickly, evaporation at 20 degrees C is negligible;a nuisance causing concentration of airborne particles can, however), ultravioletstraling C (short-wave ultraviolet radiation, short-wavelength ultraviolet radiation, ultraviolet C, ultraviolet C radiation), standaardilluminatie (standard illuminant, white C), sneeuw (snow), koelen in lucht vanaf 910 deg.C à 940 deg.C,gevolgd door ontlaten en spanningsarm gloeien bij temperaturen van 650 deg.C tot 720 deg.C (air cooling from 910 to 940 C, followed by tempering and stress relieving at 650 to 720 C), Rockwellhardheid B (Rockwell hardness B, Rockwell hardness C), lanatoside C (lanatoside C), Programma van de Gemeenschap op het gebied van telecommunicatietechnologieën-O&O op het gebied van geavanceerde communicatietechnologieën in Europa (Community programme in the field of telecommunications technologies-r esearch and development(R&D)in a dvanced c ommunications technologies in E urope), onverzadigd koolstofatoom (unsaturated C atom, unsaturated carbon atom), om,ondanks de lage omzettingssnelheid,toch een ferriet-perliet-structuur te verkrijgen,moet het staal op een speciale wijze worden gekoeld,zoals b.v.koelen tot 670 deg.C,twee uur op deze temperatuur houden en daarna in lucht afkoelen (held at 670 C for 2 h and then air cooled, in order to obtain a ferrite-pearlite structure, in spite of the slow transformation rate, the steel must be cooled), na ontlaten bij 750 deg.C treedt een dermate vergroving van de carbiden op dat deze reeds met een lichtmicroscoop kunnen worden waargenomen (after tempering at 750 C does marked coarsening of the carbides occur, so that the carbide particles can be seen under the optical microscope), na het ontlaten bij 400deg.C lijkt de structuur als gevolg van de grove vorm van de carbiden ruwer te zijn (after temyering at 400 C, the structure appears roughened due to the coarse form of the carbides), na afkoelen van 870 deg.C tot 500 deg.C in 20 sec.is het bainiet fijner en wordt doorsneden door martensietgebieden (after cooling from 870 C to 500 C in 20 s, finer bainite is formed interspersed with regions of martensite), molaire percentage van G% C (DNA base composition, mol percent G + C, mol percent guanine + cytosine), zilveren zweefbrevetinsigne (Silver C), Rockwellhardheid C (Rockwell hardness B, Rockwell hardness C). (various references)
       
    Esperanto
    		  
    askorbata acido (ascorbic acid, vitamin C). (various references)
       
    Finnish
    		  
    C-vitamiini (vitamin C). (various references)
       
    German
    		  
    ct (computed tomography(X-ray CT), computer assisted tomography, computer tomography, computerised tomography), ca. (approx.), c (C language, C major, c minor, centre, Chief, Christian-democrats, corrosive, degree celsius), Virus der Wildseuche (B, D, E, Pasteurella multocida(or Pasteurella septica)serotypes A), Pasteurella multocida (B, D, E, Pasteurella multocida(or Pasteurella septica)serotypes A), Geflügelcholera-Baz. (B, D, E, Pasteurella multocida(or Pasteurella septica)serotypes A), Bact.multocidum (B, D, E, Pasteurella multocida(or Pasteurella septica)serotypes A). (various references)
       
    Greek 
    		  
    παστερέλλωση (B, D, E, haemorrhagic bovine septicaemia, haemorrhagic septicaemia, haemorrhagic septicaemia of cattle, Pasteurella multocida infection, Pasteurella multocida(or Pasteurella septica)serotypes A, pasteurellosis of cattle, septicaemic pasteurellosis), αιμορραγική συναιμία των ζώων (B, D, E, Pasteurella multocida(or Pasteurella septica)serotypes A). (various references)
       
    Hungarian
    		  
    c-hang (do). (various references)
       
    Italian
    		  
    ci (it, ourselves, there, to us, us), Pasteurella multocida (B, D, E, Pasteurella multocida, Pasteurella multocida(or Pasteurella septica)serotypes A). (various references)
       
    Japanese Kanji 
    		  
    熱帯夜  (night in which temperature doesn't fall below 25 degrees C), 甲乙丙丁 , 炭素　 (carbon C), ハ音記号  (C clef), ハ長調  (bar, bar code, barbarism, barbecue, barbell, barber, barell, bargain, bargain sale, bargaining power, bartender, barter, base, Bayer, BBQ, Berkeley, berkelium, Berkley, Bermuda shorts, Bermuda Triangle, berth, bias, biathlon, bio, bio music, biochip, biocomputer, bioconversion, bioelectronics, bioethics, biofeedback, biogas, biography, biohazard, bioholonics, bioindustry, bioinfomatics, biomass, bionics, biopsy, bioreactor, biorhythm, bioscience, biosensor, biotechnology, biotelemetry, biotron, bird carving, bird sanctuary, bird watching, birdcall, birdie, Birmingham, birth, birth control, birthday, bourbon, Burberry, burger, burlesque, burner, burn-out syndrome, burst, buying power, by, bye, C major, crowbar, Farbenfabriken Bayer Aktiengesellschaft, hair combed in stripes across a bald pate, old man who takes Viagra, scale, updating a software version, Vermont, vernier, verse, version, vertical marketing, violin, violinist, virgin, Virginia, virginity, virtual, virtual circuit, virtual reality), ハ短調  (C minor), サイクルアンドライド方式  (cycle and ride system, cycle ball, cycle hit, cycle soccer, cycle stock, cycle time, cyclo-C, cyclocytidine, cycloid), 丙種  (class C, third class), 司令長官  (C-in-C), Commander-in-Chief), 可の評点  (grade C, Passable). (various references)
       
    Japanese Katakana 
    		  
    ハたんちょう (C minor), ハおんきごう (C clef), ハちょうちょう (C major), ねったいや (night in which temperature doesn't fall below 25 degrees C), しれいちょうかん (C-in-C), Commander-in-Chief), かのひょうてん (grade C, Passable), こうおつへいてい, サイクロＣ  (cyclo-C, cyclocytidine), へいしゅ (branch of an army, class C, third class). (various references)
       
    Manx
    		  
    gleaysh C (key of C). (various references)
       
    Pig Latin
    		  
    cay.(various references)
       
    Portuguese
    		  
    terceira letra do alfabeto ingle^s, terceira letra do alfabeto ingle, "Pasteurella multocida" (B, D, E, Pasteurella multocida(or Pasteurella septica)serotypes A). (various references)
       
    Romanian
    		  
    do (do). (various references)
       
    Russian 
    		  
    сто долларов, до (above, afore, as far as 1, before, in so far as, must, pleased, preliminary to, previous to, prior the, prior to, thru, til, till, till 1, to, to power of, to the earlier of, until, until !мес!, until [h], unto). (various references)
       
    Spanish
    		  
    c (C language, Charlie, corrosive, Cuba), siglo (age, cent, centenary, centennial, century, epoch, era, world), pasteurella multocida (B, D, E, Pasteurella multocida(or Pasteurella septica)serotypes A), do (do). (various references)
       
    Swedish
    		  
    c (C language). (various references)
       
    Turkish
    		  
    yüz dolarlık banknot, yüz (cast of features, countenance, dial, face, facial, front, frontispiece, hecto-, hundred, kisser, mien, obverse, one hundred, Phiz, physiognomy, puss, Snoot, visage), orta (bosom, center, central, centre, fair, in between, intermediary, intermediate, mean, medial, median, mediate, mediocre, medium, mesial, mesne, meso-, mezzo-, mid, mid-, middle, middling, midst, moderate, passable, secondary), karbon (carbon, carbonaceous), do (do, middle c). (various references)
       
    Ukrainian
    		  
    сто доларів (century). (various references)
       
    Vietnamese 
    		  
    sách vỡ lòng (a b c - book), sách học vần (a b c - book, spelling-book, syllabary), bảng chữ cái  khái niệm cơ sở (a b c). (various references)
    Source: compiled by the editor from various translation references.
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    Bible Trace: C
    LanguageDateSourceActs Chapter 2, Verse 35
    Greek (transliterated)250 BCSeptuagintEwV an qw touV ecqrouV sou upopodion twn podwn sou

    Latin405VulgateDonec ponam inimicos tuos scabillum pedum tuorum

    Old English990West SaxonOð ic do þæt þine feondbeon þinum fotum fotstol."’ c
    Middle English1395WyclifSitte thou on my riyt half, til Y putte thin enemyes a stool of thi feet.
    Renaissance English1526TyndaleVntill I make thy fooes thy fote stole.
    Jacobean English1611King JamesUntil I make thy foes thy footstool.
    Victorian English1833WebsterUntil I make thy foes thy footstool.

    Basic English1964OgdenTill I put all those who are against you under your feet.

    Source: compiled by the editor from various references; see credits.
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    Matched Bible Translations: C
    LanguageActs Chapter 2, Verse 35
    Albanianderisa unë t'i vë armiqtë e tu si stol të këmbëve të tua!".
    Cebuanohangtud nga ang imong mga kaaway pagahimoon ko nang tumbanan sa imong mga tiil.`
    Croatiandok ne položim neprijatelje tvoje za podnožje nogama tvojim!
    Danishindtil jeg får lagt dine Fjender som en Skammel for dine Fødder."
    DutchTotdat Ik Uw vijanden zal gezet hebben tot een voetbank Uwer voeten.
    Finnishkunnes minä panen sinun vihollisesi sinun jalkojesi astinlaudaksi.`
    FrenchJusqu`à ce que je fasse de tes ennemis ton marchepied.
    Germanbis daß ich deine Feinde lege zum Schemel deiner Füße."
    Haitian Creolejouk tan mwen fè lènmi ou yo tounen yon ti ban pou lonje pye ou.
    HungarianMíglen vetem a te ellenségeidet lábaid alá zsámolyul.
    Indonesian-Bahasa Sehari-hariDuduklah di sebelah kanan-Ku, sampai Aku membuat musuh-musuh-Mu takluk kepada-Mu!'
    Indonesian-Terjemahan Lamasehingga Aku menaklukkan segala musuh-Mu menjadi alas kaki-Mu.
    Italianfinché io ponga i tuoi nemici come sgabello ai tuoi piedi.
    MaoriKia meinga ra ano e ahau ou hoariri hei turanga waewae mou.
    Norwegiantil jeg får lagt dine fiender til skammel for dine føtter!
    Portugueseaté que eu ponha os teus inimigos por escabelo de teus pés.   
    Rumanianpknqce voi pune pe vrqjmawii Tqi supt picioarele Tale.`
    RussianДПЛПМЕ РПМПЦХ ЧТБЗПЧ фЧПЙИ Ч РПДОПЦЙЕ ОПЗ фЧПЙИ.
    ShuarAme nemasrumin nupetkattajai. Nu Túruntsain jui Pujustá' Tímiayi." Nuní aarmaiti Jesusnan, Tímiayi.
    Spanishhasta que ponga a tus enemigos por estrado de tus pies."
    Swahilihadi nitakapowafanya adui zako kibao cha kukanyagia miguu yako.`
    Swedishtill dess jag har lagt dina fiender dig till en fotapall.
    Umaduu' -na kupopengkoru hawe'ea bali' -nu hi Iko.'
    Source: compiled by the editor from various references; see credits.
    Top     
    Anagrams: C
    Scrabble® Enable2K-Verified Anagrams
     Words containing the letters "c"
     
    +2 letters: ace, act, arc, cab, cad, cam, can, cap, car, cat, caw, cay, cee, cel, cep, chi, cig, cis, cob, cod, cog, col, con, coo, cop, cor, cos, cot, cow, cox, coy, coz, cry, cub, cud, cue, cum, cup, cur, cut, cwm, doc, ecu, hic, ice, ich, ick, icy, lac, mac, moc, oca, orc, pac, pec, pic, rec, roc, sac, sec, sic, tic, vac.
    Source: compiled by the editor from various references; see credits.

    SCRABBLE® is a registered trademark. All intellectual property rights in and to the game are owned in the U.S.A and Canada by Hasbro Inc., and throughout the rest of the world by J.W. Spear & Sons Limited of Maidenhead, Berkshire, England, a subsidiary of Mattel Inc. Mattel and Spear are not affiliated with Hasbro.
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