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Son

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Specialty Definition: Gian Lorenzo Bernini

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Gian Lorenzo Bernini (1598 (Naples) - 1680 (Rome)) was the pre-eminent baroque artist, who worked chiefly in Rome. Eminently a sculptor, he was also an architect, painter, draftsman, designer of stage sets, fireworks displays, and funeral trappings.

His father Pietro was a well known Mannerist sculptor himself, but Gian Lorenzo soon showed a particular attitude. He soon went to Rome, where his career was run. His first works were inspired by Hellenistic art; among them "The Goat Amalthea Nursing the Infant Zeus and a Young Satyr" (redated 1609, Galleria Borghese, Rome) and the "Abduction of Proserpina" (1621-1622, Galleria Borghese, Rome).

His first architectural projects include the facade for the church of Santa Bibiana (1624-1626), Rome, and the creation of the magnificent baldachin (1624-1633), or altar canopy, over the high altar of St. Peter's Basilica [1]. Then he conceived the tombs of Pope Urban VIII [1] and Pope Alexander VII Chigi[1] (1628-47 and 1671-78, respectively, St. Peter's Basilica). The Cathedra Petri (Chair of Saint Peter, 1657-66), in the apse of St. Peter's, is one of his masterpieces.

David

Among his best-known sculpting works are the "Ecstasy of St Teresa" (1645-1652, in the Cornaro Chapel, Santa Maria della Vittoria, Rome), "Apollo and Daphne", and the "David" at the Borghese Gallery. Also, he produced several allegorical busts such as the Damned Soul and Blessed Soul (both circa 1619, Palazzo di Spagna, Rome).

Bernini depicts David in motion, in contrast to the famous statue of David by Michelangelo in which the character is preparing for action. The twisted torso and furrowed brow of Bernini's "David" is symptomatic of the baroque's interest in dynamic movement over high renaissance stasis.

Also adept at architecture, he designed the piazza (great square) and colonnade of St Peter's in the Vatican (most famous work). He planned several famous palaces: Palazzo Ludovisi (now Palazzo Montecitorio, 1650) and Palazzo Chigi (1664), in Rome, and made an unexecuted design for the Louvre (presented to Louis XIV in 1665, when Bernini was in Paris). Or he designed some churches, like in Castelgandolfo and in Ariccia (near Rome). One of the small baroque churches in Rome presents an ensemble of Bernini's work: Bernini was responsible not only for the architecture at Sant'Andrea al Quirinale but also the enormous statue of St. Andrew the Apostle over the high altar.

The spectacular Fountain of the Four Rivers (1648-51) [1] in the Piazza Navona, Rome, is also a source of anecdotes about his rivalry with Francesco Borromini (whose Sant' Agnese in Agone church faces the fountain).

Also to remember, portraits of Cardinal Scipione Borghese [1] (1632, Galleria Borghese) and Louis XIV of France (1665, Palace of Versailles).

See also:

• List of painters
• List of Italian painters
• List of famous Italians

  Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Gian Lorenzo Bernini."

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Hank Williams, Jr.

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Hank Williams, Jr. (born May 26, 1949) is a country singer, best known for hits like "All My Rowdy Friends (Have Settled Down)" and "Born to Boogie", as well as for being the son of country music pioneer Hank Williams Sr He was born in Shreveport, Louisiana and was raised by his mother, Audrey, after Hank Sr.'s death in 1953. At eight years old, Williams Jr. began performing. In 1963, he made his recording debut with "Lone Gone Lonesome Blues", a staple of his father's career. After the soundtrack to Your Cheatin' Heart, a biography to his father, Williams Jr. hit the charts with one of his own compositions, "Standing in the Shadows". The song proved signalled a move towards rock and roll and other influences as Williams Jr. stepped out of the shadow of his father.

While recording a series of hit songs, Williams began abusing drugs and alcohol and eventually tried to commit suicide in 1974. Moving to Alabama, Williams began playing with Southern rock musicians like Toy Caldwell, Marshall Tucker and Charlie Daniels. In 1975, he was severely injured in a mountain-climbing accident in Montana. Upon his recovery (which took two years), Williams worked with Waylon Jennings on The New South. He didn't reach the charts again until the late 1970s, with "I Fought the Law" (Bobby Fuller), "Family Tradition" and "Whiskey Bent and Hell Bound". During the 1980s, Williams became a country music superstar known for catchy anthems and hard-edged rock-influenced country. By the end of the decade, however, the hits had dried up, with his last major success being "There's a Tear in My Beer", a duet with his father created using electronic dubbing techniques.

Today, he is probably best known as the performer of the theme song for Monday Night Football, based on "All My Rowdy Friends".

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Hank Williams, Jr.."

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Jesus Christ

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Image of Jesus Christ from Agia Sophia, Istanbul (12th century)

This article is part of the Jesus series.

Christian view of Jesus as Messiah

Resurrection of Jesus Christ

Islamic view of Isa (Jesus)

Jewish view of Jesus as Messiah

Other perspectives on Jesus

Sources about Jesus

Historicity of Jesus

Fictional portrayals of Jesus

Jesus of Nazareth (or Jesus Christ, see alternate names below) (born: c. 6 BC- c. 6; died: c. 27 - c. 36) was a Jewish religious teacher and healer; who was crucified during the early years of the Roman Empire.

According to those religions conventionally designated as "Christian", Jesus is the messiah and Son of God; who brought salvation to humanity through his death and resurrection. Jesus is also regarded as an ascetic prophet, by Muslims; as a false Messiah, by Judaism and Mandaeanism; as a manifestation of God, by the Baha'i; a manifestation of Maitreya by some Buddhists; as an avatar, by some Hindus; as the savior and bringer of gnosis by various Gnostic sects; and, as a guru by many New Ageists.

The primary source of historical knowledge about Jesus is contained within the Christian Gospels which the majority of historians believe to originated from primary sources written within living memory of Jesus. Supporting evidence for the historical Jesus is also provided, though less reliably from the perspective of historians, by other religious traditions and certain historians of the period. Therefore, most scholars accept the Gospels as evidence for the historical existence of Jesus; and, excepting certain miraculous claims, for the basic narrative of his life and death. There is, however, a minority of historians who disagree, viewing Jesus as purely a mythical figure.

Introduction

Most discussions about Jesus, including this one, involve a conflict between contrasting, and in some ways incompatible, views of the world and of how humans acquire knowledge (this subject is discussed in the disciplines epistemology and metaphysics).

Christians believe that humans can have direct personal knowledge of God and of Jesus and that this is confirmed through scripture, which is a form of divine revelation. Some Christians believe that Scripture must be interpreted in the light of Tradition, while others believe that individuals can interpret it for themselves. For some Christians, belief in Jesus is a matter of faith: they need no further confirmation of the existence of God and His son. Other Christians feel they have knowledge of God and Jesus based on the empirical existence of the Gospels and/or Bible as accurate historical documents, the Christian tradition passed on from generation to generation, and through their direct consequent religious experiences.

Historians meanwhile make statements about historical events or persons based on more pragmatic standards of empirical evidence. They look at scripture not as divinely inspired but as the work of fallible humans, who wrote in the light of their culture and time. However, most historians accept that the accounts of the life of Jesus in the Gospels and from other sources provide a reasonable basis of evidence, by the standards of ancient history, for the historical existence of Jesus.

Furthermore, Jesus is still more controversial because there are different accounts of Jesus within Islam, Judaism, Gnosticism, Mandaeanism, and other religions (see later in this article.)

There is a paucity of accepted contemporaneous sources and of direct empirical evidence. Therefore, it is difficult for representatives of the different religious and secular traditions of knowledge and faith to reach agreement on a "biography" of Jesus.This article therefore offers the differing views and beliefs.

The historical Jesus of Nazareth

This section provides a historical view of Jesus, based on empirical evidence that is considered satisfactory by the majority of historians.

The name Jesus Christ

Jesus is derived from the Latin Iesus, which in turn comes from the Greek Iesous (Ιησους). The Greek form is a transliteration of the Aramaic name Yeshua (ישוע), a short form of Hebrew Yehoshua (יהושע), which means the Lord is salvation, literally Yahweh/Jehovah saves. The English form of Yehoshua is Joshua. (Other common English transliterations from the Aramaic Yeshua (ישוע) include Jeshua and Yahshua.)

Christ is a title, and comes, via Latin, from the Greek Christos (Χριστος), which means anointed. The Greek form is a literal translation of Messiah from Hebrew mashiyakh (משיח) or Aramaic m'shikha (משיחא), words which typically signified "king" -- a man, chosen by God or descended from a man chosed by God, to serve as a civil and military authority. In Arabic, Jesus is known as the prophet Isa al Masih, from the aforementioned Aramaic for Jesus the Messiah.

Jesus spoke Aramaic as it was the common language of Galilee and Judea; thus, during his life, he was probably known as Yeshua.

Sources about Jesus Christ

Main article: Sources about Jesus Christ

Most historians do not dispute the existence of a person named Jesus; evidence for Jesus' existence two thousand years ago are by historical standards actually fairly strong. Jesus is obviously mentioned extensively within the New Testament, but is also considered a historical figure within the traditions of Judaism, Islam, Mandeanism and alternative Christian traditions like Gnosticism. Jesus also gets a passing mention within historical accounts of the period, though the reliability of these accounts is disputed.

Moreover, historians generally agree that at least some of the source documents on which the Gospels are based were written within living memory of Jesus. These historians therefore accept that the accounts of the life of Jesus in the Gospels, excepting certain miraculous claims and the details that surround them, provide a reasonable basis of evidence by the standards of ancient history, for the basic narrative of Jesus' life and death.

Date of birth and death

Brief timeline of Jesus of important years from empirical sources. (see also detailed Christian timeline) c.   6 BC - c.   4 BC - c.   6 AD - c. 26 AD - c. 27 AD - c. 36 AD - Suggested birth (Earliest) Herod's death Suggested birth (Latest). Quirinius census Pilate appointed Judea governor Suggested death (Earliest). Suggested death (Latest); Pilate removed from office

The exact month or day or even the year of Jesus's birth cannot be exactly ascertained. Due to a mistaken calculation based on the Roman Calendar by Dionysius Exiguus in 525, it was long held that Jesus was born in the year A.D. 1.

The Gospels are problematic, because they offer two seemingly incompatible accounts. Matthew states that Jesus was born while Herod the Great was still alive and that Herod ordered the slaughter of infants two years old and younger (Matt. 2:16), and based on the date of Herod's death in 4 BC (contra Dionysius Exiguus), many chronologists conclude that the year 6 BC is the most likely year of Jesus's birth. Consequently, Jesus would have been about four to six years old in the year A.D. 1. On the other hand, Luke's account places Jesus's birth during a census conducted under the governorship of Quirinius, who, according to Josephus, conducted a census in A.D. 6. In order to reconcile the two Gospel accounts, some have suggested that Josephus was mistaken or that Quirinius had a separate period of rule under Herod. In any case, the actual date of his birth remains historically unverifiable.

In the 6th century, Dionysius Exiguus proposed to make the birth of Jesus the basis of the calendar but he miscalculated the death of Herod. Years reckoned in this way are labelled "A.D.", which stands for Anno Domini, meaning "in the year of the Lord" in Latin. Since many non-Christians have come to use this calendar, an alternative notation "C.E." is sometimes used. It is presently uncertain what the original meaning of this abbreviation was, although today it is taken to mean either the Common Era or the Christian Era: many references cite both.

Based on inferences from gospel accounts, Jesus was executed by crucifixion on a Friday, and on the 14th day of the Jewish month of Nisan under the administration of Pontius Pilate. Pontius Pilate held his position from 26-36 and the only years in which Nisan 14 fell on a Friday are 27, 33, and 36 and possibly in 30 depending on when the new moon would have been visible in Jerusalem. Scholars have defended all of the dates.

Jesus' life and teaching

Possibly born in Bethlehem, Jesus was brought up in Galilee. Gospel accounts state he brought up in Nazareth, however, many historians believe that Christian transcribers have mistaken the title "Nazarene" for a location. The town of Nazareth is unmentioned in contemporary historical sources.

Jesus' mother was Mary, who married Joseph, but he was only Jesus' foster father. We can say nothing with certainty about Jesus's childhood or young adulthood. Certain events are mentioned in the various gospels, but there is no common agreement.

The Gospel of Mark reports that Jesus had brothers, that he was "Mary's son and the brother of James, Joseph, Judas and Simon," and also suggests that Jesus had sisters. The Jewish historian Josephus and the Christian historian Eusebius(who wrote in Fourth century but quoted much earlier sources now unavaliable to us) refer to James the Just as Jesus' brother. Some churches reject this interpretation, saying that they were Jesus' cousins, which the Greek word for "brother" used in the Gospels would allow. Other churches suggest that these were half brothers, children of Joseph and a previous wife who died before Mary was betrothed to him. This tradition probably originates with the Protevangelion of James, traditionally ascribed to James the Just and certainly dated sometime in the late first to middle of the second century.

Jesus began his public ministry some time after he was baptized by John the Baptist, who inspired Mandaeanism. Jesus began preaching, teaching, and healing. There is no firm evidence for when his ministry started or how long it lasted. The detailed nature of Jesus' spiritual teaching cannot be fully agreed because accounts are fragmentary and because he made extensive use of paradox, metaphor and parable; making it is unclear how literally he wished to be taken and precisely what he meant.

Jesus did preach the imminent end of the current era of history, in some sense a literal end of the world as people of his time knew it; in this sense he was an apocalyptic preacher bringing a message about the imminent end of the world the Jews knew.

Like the Pharisee, Jesus opposed stringent interpretations of Jewish law, and preached a more flexible understanding of the law. His teachings show an inclination to following a teleological approach, in which the spirit of the law is more important than the letter of the law. However, the Gospels record him as having many disagreements with the Pharisees, as he consistently takes differing views from the standard religious practice of the day. However, the interpretations of the law by the Sadducees were in most cases much stricter than Pharisee interpretations of the law, and the Sadducees were in the majority at that time, yet the Gospels record no sign of Jesus having much disagreement with their views. Some modern historians thus believe that Jesus may have been a liberal Pharisee in some respects, or an Essene (a sect with whom he shared many views); and that later Christian transcribers cast him as an enemy of the Pharisees, because when Christians and Jews came into conflict in later years the Pharisee's had become the dominant sect. This view receives some support in Acts of the Apostles, because Jesus' apostles were generally attacked by Sadduccees but were sometimes protected by Pharisee liberal interpretations of Jewish law.

Jesus increasingly gained followers as his fame grew, though within his lifetime Jesus' core following remained no more than a small religious sect. Jesus had by the time of his death taught a number of his disciples or apostles to preach his teachings and perform faith healing to both Jews and Gentiles alike.

In his role as a social reformer Jesus threatened the status quo. He was unpopular with many Jewish religious authorities, not least because he criticised them; but also because some of Jesus' followers held the controversial and inflammatory view that he was "The Messiah". It is not clear from strict analysis of the original Gospel texts that Jesus made this claim about himself, but he did not deny it. Neither is it wholly clear to historians that when Jesus spoke of being "Son of God" he meant this to be taken literally as Christians believe, rather than metaphorically in the sense that we are all children of God.

Jesus came with his followers to Jerusalem during the Passover festival. He was involved in some form of public disturbance at the Temple in Jerusalem. At some point later, he was betrayed to the Jewish religious authorities of the city - either the full council (Sanhedrin) or perhaps just the High Priest - by one of his apostles Judas Iscariot. The High Priest of the city was appointed by Rome and the current holder of the post was Joseph Caiphas. The Romans ruled the city through the High Priest and Sanhedrin, so often the Jewish authorities of the city had to arrest people on the orders of the Romans. Jesus' disciples went into hiding after he was arrested.

Jesus was crucified by the Romans on the orders of Pontius Pilate the Roman Governor of Judea in Jerusalem. The Gospels state that he did this at the behest of the Jewish religious leaders, but it may have been simply that Pilate considered Jesus' ability to incite public disturbance as a potential Messiah to be a threat to Roman order. Pilate was known as a harsh ruler who ordered many executions for far lesser reasons during his reign.

All the gospel accounts agree that Joseph of Arimathea, variously a secret disciple or sympathiser to Jesus, and possible member of the Sanhedrin, arranged with Pilate for the body to be taken down and entombed. According to most accounts Jesus' mother, Mary, and other women, notably a female follower of Jesus, Mary Magdalene were present during this process.

The historicity of Jesus

Main article: Historicity of Jesus Christ

Some historians have disputed the actual existence of Jesus, claiming his existence was either an invention or he was a figure from further back in history.

Alleged relics of Jesus

Main article: Alleged relics of Jesus Christ

There are many items that are purported to be authentic relics of the Gospel account. The most famous alleged relic of Jesus is the Shroud of Turin.

Christian perspectives on Jesus

Main articles: Jesus Christ as the Messiah and Messiah

Christianity is centered on the belief that Jesus is the savior of man. According to Christians, Jesus was born in Bethlehem to Mary. He preached the new covenant across Judea, which angered traditional Jews and disturbed the Romans as he was seen as a threat to public order. One of his twelve apostles, Judas, betrayed him. Judas would later commit suicide in remorse for what he did. Jesus was nailed to the cross and killed by the Romans. However, he rose from the dead three days later.

Jewish perspectives on Jesus

Main articles: Judaism and Christianity and Jewish Messiah

Jesus Christ is deemed a false prophet in most sects of Judaism, and religious Jews are still looking for the Messiah to arrive. Christianity had started as a sect of Judaism, but developed into its own religion.

Islamic perspectives on Jesus

Main article: Isa

Muslims believe that while Jesus, or Isa in Arabic, was a prophet and Messiah. However, they do not consider him to be a son of Allah (God), other than in the metaphorical sense that we are all children of Allah. Mohammed was the final prophet to mankind in Islam.

Other perspectives on Jesus

Main article: Other perspectives on Jesus

The Mandaeanists also see Jesus Christ as something of a false prophet. Some Hindus believe that Jesus is an avatar. Other types of new-age beliefs see him as a guru. There is also speculation concerning whether Jesus was married to Mary Magdalen.

Latter-day Saints and those who believe in Mormonism believe that Jesus Christ visited the Americas shortly after His resurrection or ascension. The account may be found in the Book of Mormon.

Fictional portrayals of Jesus Christ

Main article: Fictional portrayals of Jesus Christ

Jesus Christ has been featured in many films and media, sometimes as a serious portrayal, and other times as satire.

Further reading

• The New Testament of the Bible, especially the Gospels.
• The Words: website that organises Jesus' sayings by topic
• Albright, William F. Yahweh and the Gods of Canaan: An Historical Analysis of Two Contrasting Faiths, ISBN 0931464013 [www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0931464013/qid=1066486079/]
• Paula Fredriksen, Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews: A Jewish Life and the Emergence of Christianity ISBN 0679767460
• Paula Fredriksen, From Jesus to Christ: The Origins of the New Testament Images of Christ ISBN 0300084579, ISBN 0300040180
• Jaroslav Pelikan, Jesus Through the Centuries: His Place in the History of Culture, Yale University Press, 1985, hardcover, 270 pages, ISBN 0300034962; trade paperback, HarperCollins reprint, 304 pages, ISBN 0060970804; trade paperback, Yale University Press, 1999, 320 pages, ISBN 0300079877
• E.P. Sanders, The historical figure of Jesus, Penguin, 1996, ISBN 0140144994. An up to date popular but thoroughly scholarly book.
• E.P. Sanders, Jesus and Judaism, Fortress Press, 1987, ISBN 0800620615. More specialistic than the previous book, still not inaccessible though.
• Gerd Theissen & Annette Merz, The Historical Jesus: A Comprehensive Guide, Fortress Press, 2003, ISBN 0800631226. An amazing book, tough but rewarding, exceptionally detailed.
• The Shadow of the Galilean: The Quest of the Historical Jesus in Narrative Form. Gerd Theissen. Fortress Press.
• Lewis, C.S. Mere Christianity
• Geza Vermes, Jesus the Jew: A Historian's Reading of the Gospels ISBN 0800614437
• In Quest of the Hero:(Mythos Series)- Otto Rank, Lord Fitzroy Richard Somerset Raglan and Alan Dundes, Princeton University Press, 1990, ISBN 0691020620
• On Heroes, Hero-Worship, & the Heroic in History- Thomas Carlyle
• The Jewish historian Josephus wrote about Jesus in Antiquities, Book 18, chapter 3, paragraph 3. http://www.josephus-1.com/
• Bloodline of the Holy Grail by Laurence Gardner

External links

General

• The Jewish Roman World of Jesus
  • Excellent university resource Articles on most issues concerning Jesus
• From Jesus to Christ
  • Extensive, professionally designed web site accompanying the American PBS television programme of the same name. A marvellous resource full of well-organised, useful information, though with a marked North American bias.
• Into His Own: Perspective on the World of Jesus
  • By Mahlon Smith: Excellent site exploring the world in which Jesus lived by means of well-organised, newly translated primary texts and other material.
• A Portrait of Jesus: From Galilean Jew to the Face of God
  • By Cam Howard: a splendid looking, useful web site based on the work of Marcus Borg.
• The Historical Jesus
  • University of Birmingham site
• 864 pictures
• A critical Jewish analysis
  • An examination of the historicity of Jesus, also examining the stories of the Talmud
• The Alpha Course
• Jesus Christ Catholic Encyclopedia article
• EWTN's Jesus Christ webpage
• Skeptics Guide to Jesus
  • Well written and detailed skeptics guide to Jesus. Violently anti-Christian. Alternatively argues Jesus did not exist or picks holes in Biblical accounts. Does however have a number of very intriguing articles.
• Article about the naming of Jesus
• another article about the naming of Jesus

Historical context

• Historical context
  • Long detailed article on the historical context of the time.
• Various Jewish sects during that time.

  Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Jesus Christ."

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Louis XVII of France

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Louis XVII of France (March 27, 1785 - June 8, 1795) also known as Louis-Charles, Duke of Normandy (1785-1789), Louis-Charles, Dauphin of Viennois (1789-1791), and Louis-Charles, Prince Royal of France (1791-1793), was the son of King Louis XVI of France and Marie Antoinette. The image shown here is a photo of a portrait painted of the young dauphin in 1789 by Elisabeth Vigee-Lebrun.

- Louis XVII (1789) -

During the French Revolution, Prince Louis was imprisoned with his parents. As the eldest living son of King Louis XVI, he was proclaimed king of France on January 28, 1793 by the declaration of his uncle, "Monsieur" (Louis-Stanislas-Xavier, the Comte de Provence) issued in exile in the city of Hamm, near Düsseldorf, Westphalia, a territory of the Archbishop of Cologne. The legalities of this are unclear, since France was at that time a republic. However, later the country accepted Louis-Stanislas-Xavier as Louis XVIII of France, thereby recognizing Louis XVII's reign through the numbering of kings.

Cruelly taken from his mother, the innocent child was held at the forbidding Temple Prison to prevent any monarchist bid to free him. He was ironically called a "Capet," the family name that the revolutionaries attributed to the French royals, following their refusal of nobility titles; Hugh Capet was the founder of the ruling dynasty. The little boy was forced into hard work as a cobbler's assistant and was taught to curse his parents. He was officially reported to have died in the prison from what is today recognized to have been tuberculosis. An autopsy was carried out on the child's frail body at the prison and as tradition dictated, his heart was removed by the chief doctor. Reports, however, quickly spread that the body was not that of Louis XVII and that he had been spirited away alive by sympathizers with another child's body left in his place.

Would-be royal heirs popped up across Europe for decades, and some of their descendants still have small but loyal retinues of followers today.

The heart changed hands many times; in 1975, it was finally placed at the royal crypt in the Saint Denis Basilica outside Paris, burial place of his parents and many other members of France's royal families.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Louis XVII of France."

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Son

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Son can refer to various things:

• A male direct descendant
• If referring to the Korean branch of Buddhism, see Seon
• A commune in the Ardennes département in France
• A town within the municipality of Son en Breugel, in the Netherlands
• A Cuban musical style, see son montuno

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Son."

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Son montuno

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Son is a style of Cuban music which originated in the second half of the 19th century in the eastern province of Oriente. It combines the structure and elements of Spanish canción and the Spanish guitar with African rhythms and percussion instruments of Yoruba origin. The predecessor of son is thought to have been changui, another style from eastern Cuba which also merged the Spanish guitar and African rhythms and to which son is closely related.

As son moved westard towards urban and cosmopolitan Havana, its music and dance styles grew and evolved. In Havana, influences such as American poular music and jazz via the radio were adopted. The trios gave way to the septets, including guitar or tres, marímbulas or double bass, bongos, claves and maracas. The trumpet was introduced in 1926. Lead singers improvised lyrics and embellished melody lines while the clave laid down the basic 1-2-3, 1-2 beat,

As time passed, musicians began "whitening up" son for the growing tourist traffic in the Havana nightclubs who did not understand the complex African rhythms. Arsenio Rodriguez, one of Cuba's most famous soneros, is considered to have brought son back to its African roots in the 1940s by adapting the guaguanco style to son, and by adding a cowbell and conga to the rhythm section. He also expand the role of the tres as a solo instrument. Rodriguez introduced the montuno (or mambo section) for melodic solos and his style became known as son montuno

In the 1970s and onwards, son montuno was combined with other Latin musical forms, such as the mambo and the rumba, to form contemporary salsa music, currently immensely popular throughout Latin America and the Hispanic world. However, there are still many practioners of traditional son montuno, such as Elias Ochoa, who have recorded and toured widely as a result of the upturn in interest in son montuno since the mid-1990s.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Son montuno."

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William Bowyer

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

William Bowyer (December 19, 1699 - November 13, 1777), was an English printer.

Born in London, he was educated at St John's College, Cambridge, and in 1722 became a partner in his father's business. In 1729 he was appointed printer of the votes of the British House of Commons, and in 1736 printer to the Society of Antiquaries, of which he was elected a fellow in 1737. In 1737 he took as apprentice John Nichols, who was to be his successor and biographer.

In 1761 Bowyer became printer to the Royal Society, and in 1767 printer of the rolls of the House of Lords and the journals of the House of Commons. He died leaving unfinished a number of large works and among them the reprint of Domesday Book.

He wrote a great many tracts and pamphlets, edited, arranged and published a host of books, but perhaps his principal work was an edition of the New Testament in Greek, with notes. His generous bequests in favour of his own profession are administered by the Stationers' Company, of which he became a liveryman in 1738, and in whose hall is his portrait bust and a painting of his father. He was known as "the learned printer."

Reference

• This entry incorporates public domain text originally from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica.

  Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "William Bowyer."

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Abbreviations & Acronyms: Son

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Synonyms within Context: Son

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Modern Usage: Son

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Commercial Usage: Son

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Image Slideshow: Son

Photos: Son More pictures...

Illustrations: Son More pictures...

Computer Images: Son More pictures...

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Photo Album: Son

Thumbnail	Description & Credit	Thumbnail	Description & Credit
	An adult black man is pictured here in a home setting at the kitchen table with his wife, daughter and son. He is assembling a model car, indicating the digital facility he maintains. He is also seen outdoors with his three children. He was diagnosed as having osteogenic sarcoma of the upper left arm. Surgeons implanted a metal rod in place of the cancerous bone. A new technique. Since the muscle and tendon were saved, he still has use of the arm. The procedure was possible since his cancer had not spread. Credit: Linda Bartlett (photographer).		"Jay Bird" Fairfield Probably Walter A. Fairfield, son of George A. Fairfield. Credit: Coast & Geodetic Survey Historical Image Collection.
	Father and son fishing off the Isle of Palms Causeway. Credit: Fisheries.		Figure 44. Water sampling bottles developed by the Central Laboratory at Christiana by Doctor Vagn Ekman, the son of the inventor of the insulation water sampling bottle. The bottle shown is the lateral model. Left: descending. Right: ascending. These bottles were designed in 1902. Credit: Sailing for Science - the NOAA Fleet Then and Now.
	Figure 45. Water sampling bottles developed by the Central Laboratory at Christiana by Doctor Vagn Ekman, the son of the inventor of the insulation water sampling bottle. The bottle shown is the "end of cable" model. Left: descending. Right: ascending. These bottles were designed in 1902. Credit: Sailing for Science - the NOAA Fleet Then and Now.		Alice Pitsenbarger observes at right as her husband, William F. Pitsenbarger, center, accepts the Medal of Honor on behalf of his son, Airman 1st Class William F. Pitsenbarger, from Secretary of the Air Force Whit Peters, during a ceremony Dec. 8 at the U.
	Air Force Reservist Senior Airman Tom Kimball gets a hand straightening his tie from his son Airman Ben Kimball. Though he is 44 years old and the president of a successful multimedia production company, Ben's commitment to the Air Force inspired the elde.		A Missouri pork producer and his son take a break from sexing young pigs. Credit: Norm Klopfenstein.
	An NRCS District Conservationist examines range grasses with a landowner and his son. Credit: Tim McCabe.		African American farmer, Donnell Crosby and his son Dillon check their watermellons in Jones County, MS. Credit: USDA.
Source: pictures compiled by the editor from various references; see picture credits.

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Digital Photo Gallery: Son
 

"Ayacucho woman and son" by Alexis Bellido Commentary: "Taken at Quinua, Ayacuho, Perú, a native woman with her child on the back. Let me know if you use it."	"My son" by Tracy Woodward Commentary: "This great photo of my son was taken by accident. Again free to use just want to know where and what for. Thanks."
Source: photographs selected by the editor, with permission from the photographers.

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Source: compiled by the editor from several corpora; see credits.

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