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Iran

Specialty Definition: Discrimination against non-Muslims in Iran

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

The Constitution of Iran declares that the "official religion of Iran is Islam and the doctrine followed is that of "Ja’fari (Twelver) Shi’ism." The Iranian government restricts freedom of religion.

Iran's religious minorities--including Baha’is, Jews, Christians, and Sufi Muslims--reported imprisonment, harassment, and intimidation based on their religious beliefs. At least four Baha’is were among those still imprisoned for reasons related to their faith, while eight Jews remained in prison.

Society is accustomed to the presence of non-Muslim communities, some of which predate Islam. However, government actions create a threatening atmosphere for some religious minorities, especially Baha’is, Jews, and evangelical Christians.

Religious Demography

The country has a total area of approximately 631,663 square miles, and its population is approximately 66 million. The population is approximately 99 percent Muslim, of which 89 percent are Shi’a and 10 percent Sunni (mostly Turkomen, Arabs, Baluchs, and Kurds living in the southwest, southeast, and northwest). Sufi Brotherhoods are popular, but there are no reliable figures available regarding the size of the Sufi population.

Baha’is, Christians, Zoroastrians, Mandaeans, and Jews constitute less than 1 percent of the population. The largest non-Muslim minority is the Baha’i community, which has an estimated 300,000 to 350,000 adherents throughout the country. Estimates on the size of the Jewish community vary from 20,000 to 30,000. These figures represent a substantial reduction from the estimated 75,000 to 80,000 Jews who resided in the country prior to the 1979 Iranian Revolution. The Government estimates the Christian community to number approximately 115,000 to 120,000 persons; however, the U.N. Special Representative (UNSR) used the figure of 300,000 in a 2001 report. The majority of the Christian population are ethnic Armenians and Assyro-Chaldeans. There also are Protestant denominations, including evangelical churches. The UNSR reported that Christians are emigrating at an estimated rate of 15,000 to 20,000 per year. The Mandaeans, a community whose religion draws on pre-Christian gnostic beliefs, number approximately 5,000 to 10,000 persons, with members residing primarily in Khuzestan in the southwest.

The Government figures reported by the United Nations in 1996 place the size of the Zoroastrian community at approximately 35,000 adherents. Zoroastrian groups cite a larger figure of approximately 60,000, according to the same U.N. report. Zoroastrians mainly are ethnic Persians and are concentrated in the cities of Tehran, Kerman, and Yazd. Zoroastrianism was the official religion of the pre-Islamic Sassanid Empire and thus played a central role in the country’s history.

Status of Religious Freedom

Itan restricts freedom of religion. The Constitution declares that the "official religion of Iran is Islam and the doctrine followed is that of Ja'fari (Twelver) Shi'ism." It also states that "other Islamic denominations are to be accorded full respect," and designates Zoroastrians, Jews, and Christians as the only "recognized religious minorities," which, "within the limits of the law," are permitted to perform their religious rites and ceremonies and "to act according to their own canon in matters of personal affairs and religious education."

Although the Constitution states that "the investigation of individuals’ beliefs is forbidden" and that "no one may be molested or taken to task simply for holding a certain belief," the adherents of religions not specifically protected under the Constitution do not enjoy freedom of activity. This situation most directly affects adherents of the Baha’i Faith. The Government regards the Baha'i community, whose faith originally derives from a strand of Islam, as a misguided or wayward "sect."

The Government fuels anti-Baha’i and anti-Jewish sentiment in the country for political purposes. Government officials have stated that the Baha’is "are not a religious minority, but a political organization which was associated with the Shah’s regime, is against the Iranian Revolution and engages in espionage activities." However, government officials reportedly nonetheless have stated that, as individuals, all Baha’is are entitled to their beliefs and are protected under other articles of the Constitution as citizens.

The central feature of the country’s Islamic republican system is rule by a "religious jurisconsult." The Supreme Leader of Islamic Republic controls the most important levers of power; he is chosen by a group of 83 religious scholars. All acts of the Majles (legislative body) must be reviewed for conformity with Islamic law and principles by the Council of Guardians, which is composed of six clerics appointed by the Supreme Leader and six Muslim jurists (legal scholars) nominated by the Head of the Judiciary and elected by parliament.

Religious activity is monitored closely by the Ministry of Islamic Culture and Guidance and by the Ministry of Intelligence and Security (MOIS). Adherents of recognized religious minorities are not required to register individually with the Government; however, their community, religious, and cultural events and organizations, including schools, are monitored closely. Registration of Bahai’s is a police function. Evangelical Christian groups have been pressured by government authorities to compile and submit membership lists for their congregations, but evangelicals have resisted this demand. Non-Muslim owners of grocery shops are required to indicate their religious affiliation on the fronts of their shops.

Restrictions on Religious Freedom

Religious minorities, by law and practice, are barred from being elected to a representative body (except to the seats in the Majles reserved for minorities, as provided for in the Constitution) and from holding senior government or military positions. Members of religious minorities are allowed to vote, but they may not run for President. All religious minorities suffer varying degrees of officially sanctioned discrimination, particularly in the areas of employment, education, and housing.

Members of religious minorities are barred from becoming public school principals. Applicants for public sector employment are screened for their adherence to Islam. The law stipulates penalties for government workers who do not observe "Islam’s principles and rules." Religious minorities may not serve in the judiciary or the security services. The Constitution states that "the Army of the Islamic Republic of Iran must be an Islamic army, i.e., committed to an Islamic ideology and the people, and must recruit into its service individuals who have faith in the objectives of the Islamic Revolution and are devoted to the cause of achieving its goals." Baha’is are prohibited from government employment.

University applicants are required to pass an examination in Islamic theology, which limits the access of most religious minorities to higher education, although all public school students, including non-Muslims, must study Islam. Applicants for public sector employment similarly are screened for their knowledge of Islam.

The Government generally allows recognized religious minorities to conduct the religious education of their adherents. This includes separate and privately funded Zoroastrian, Jewish, and Christian schools but does not include Baha’i schools. The Ministry of Education, which imposes certain curriculum requirements, supervises these schools. With few exceptions, the directors of such private schools must be Muslim. Attendance at the schools is not mandatory for recognized religious minorities. All textbooks used in course work, including religious texts, must be approved for use by the Ministry of Education. Religious texts in non-Persian languages require approval by the authorities for use. This requirement imposes sometimes significant translation expenses on minority communities.

Recognized religious minorities may provide religious instruction in non-Persian languages but often come under pressure from the authorities when conducting such instruction in Persian. In particular evangelical Christian and Jewish communities suffer harassment and arrest by authorities for the printing of materials or delivery of sermons in Persian.

Recognized religious minorities are allowed by the Government to establish community centers and certain cultural, social, sports, or charitable associations that they finance themselves. This does not apply to the Baha’i community, which since 1983 has been denied the right to assemble officially or to maintain administrative institutions. Because the Baha’i Faith has no clergy, the denial of the right to form such institutions and elect officers threatens its existence in the country.

Religious minorities suffer discrimination in the legal system, receiving lower awards than Muslims in injury and death lawsuits, and incurring heavier punishments. Muslim men are free to marry non-Muslim women but marriages between Muslim women and non-Muslim men are not recognized.

The Government is highly suspicious of any proselytizing of Muslims by non-Muslims and can be harsh in its response, in particular against Baha’is and evangelical Christians.

The Government does not ensure the right of citizens to change or renounce their religious faith. Apostasy, specifically conversion from Islam, can be punishable by death.

The Baha’i Faith originated in Iran during the 1840’s as a reformist movement within Shi’a Islam. Initially it attracted a wide following among Shi’a clergy. The political and religious authorities of that time joined to suppress the movement, and since then the hostility of the Shi’a clergy to the Baha’i Faith has remained strong. Baha’is are considered apostates because of their claim to a valid religious revelation subsequent to that of Mohammed. The Baha’i Faith is defined by the Government as a political "sect," historically linked to the Pahlavi regime and, hence, counterrevolutionary. Historically at risk in the country, Baha’is often have suffered increased levels of harassment and abuse during times of political unrest.

Baha'is may not teach or practice their faith or maintain links with coreligionists abroad. The fact that the Baha’i world headquarters (established by the founder of the Baha’i Faith in the 19th century, in what was then Ottoman-controlled Palestine) is situated in what is now the state of Israel, exposes Baha’is to government charges of "espionage on behalf of Zionism," in particular when caught communicating with or sending monetary contributions to the Baha’i headquarters.

Broad restrictions on Baha’is appear to be aimed at destroying them as a community. Baha’is repeatedly have been offered relief from mistreatment in exchange for recanting their faith. Baha’i cemeteries, holy places, historical sites, administrative centers, and other assets were seized shortly after the 1979 revolution. None of the properties have been returned, and many have been destroyed.

Baha’is are not allowed to bury and honor their dead in keeping with their religious tradition. They are permitted access only to areas of wasteland that the Government designates for their use, and are not allowed to mark the graves. Many historic Baha’i gravesites have been desecrated or destroyed. In 2000 in the city of Abadeh, a Revolutionary Guard officer bulldozed a Baha'i cemetery with 22 graves.

In what appeared to be a hopeful development, in 2002 the Government offered the Tehran community a piece of land for use as a cemetery. However, the land was in the desert, with no access to water, making it impossible to perform Baha'i mourning rituals. In addition the Government stipulated that no markers be put on individual graves and that no mortuary facilities be built on the site, making it impossible to perform a proper burial.

Baha’i group meetings and religious education, which often take place in private homes and offices, are curtailed severely. Public and private universities continue to deny admittance to Baha'i students, a particularly demoralizing blow to a community that traditionally has placed a high value on education. Denial of access to higher education appears aimed at the eventual impoverishment of the Baha’i community.

Baha'is regularly are denied compensation for injury or criminal victimization. Government authorities claim that only Muslim plaintiffs are eligible for compensation in these circumstances.

A 1993 law prohibits government workers from membership in groups that deny the "divine religions," terminology that the Government uses to label members of the Baha'i Faith. The law also stipulates penalties for government workers who do not observe "Islamic principles and rules."

In 1993 the UNSR reported the existence of a government policy directive regarding the Baha'is. According to the directive, the Supreme Revolutionary Council instructed government agencies to block the progress and development of the Baha'i community, expel Baha'i students from universities, cut Baha'i links with groups outside the country, restrict employment of Baha'is, and deny Baha'is "positions of influence," including in education. The Government claims that the directive is a forgery. However, it appears to be an accurate reflection of current government practice designed to eradicate slowly the Baha’i community.

In September 2001, the Ministry of Justice issued a report that reiterated that government policy continued to aim at the eventual elimination of the Baha’is as a community. It stated in part that Baha'is would only be permitted to enroll in schools if they did not identify themselves as Baha'is, and that Baha'is preferably should be enrolled in schools that have a strong and imposing religious ideology. The report also stated that Baha'is must be expelled from universities, either in the admission process or during the course of their studies, once it becomes known that they are Baha'is.

While in recent years the Government has eased some restrictions, thereby enabling Baha'is to obtain food-ration booklets and send their children to public elementary and secondary schools, the prohibition against the admission of Baha'is to universities remains. Thousands of Baha'is dismissed from government jobs in the early 1980's receive no unemployment benefits and have been required to repay the Government for salaries or pensions received from the first day of employment. Those unable to do so face prison sentences.

Iran has taken some positive steps in recognizing the rights of Baha’is, as well as other religious minorities. In November 1999, President Khatami publicly stated that no one in the country should be persecuted because of his or her religious beliefs. He added that he would defend the civil rights of all citizens, regardless of their beliefs or religion. Subsequently the Expediency Council approved the "Right of Citizenship" bill, affirming the social and political rights of all citizens and their equality before the law. In February 2000, following approval of the bill, the head of the judiciary issued a circular letter to all registry offices throughout the country that provided for any couple to be registered as husband and wife without being required to state their religious affiliation. The measure effectively permits the registration of Baha’i marriages in the country. Previously Baha’i marriages were not recognized by the Government, leaving Baha’i women open to charges of prostitution. Thus children of Baha’i marriages were not recognized as legitimate and therefore denied inheritance rights.

While Jews are a recognized religious minority, allegations of official discrimination are frequent. The Government’s anti-Israel policies, along with a perception among radical Muslim elements that Jewish citizens support Zionism and the State of Israel, create a threatening atmosphere for the small Jewish community. Jewish leaders reportedly are reluctant to draw attention to official mistreatment of their community due to fear of government reprisal.

In principle with some exceptions, there appears to be little restriction or interference with the religious practice of Judaism. However, education of Jewish children has become more difficult in recent years. The Government reportedly allows the teaching of Hebrew, recognizing that it is necessary for Jewish religious practice. However, it strongly discourages teachers from distributing Hebrew texts to students, in practice making it difficult to teach the language. Moreover, the Government has required that several Jewish schools remain open on Saturdays, the Jewish Sabbath, in conformity with the schedule of other schools in the school system. Because working or attending school on the Sabbath violates Jewish religious law, this requirement has made it difficult for observant Jews to both attend school and adhere to important tenets of their religion.

Jews are permitted to obtain passports and to travel outside the country, but often are denied the multiple-exit permits that normally are issued to citizens. With the exception of certain business travelers, Jews are required by the authorities to obtain clearance (and pay additional fees) before each trip abroad. The Government appears concerned about the emigration of Jews and permission generally is not granted for all members of a Jewish family to travel outside the country at the same time. Jews were removed progressively from government positions after the 1979 revolution.

According to the U.N. High Commission for Refugees Background Paper on Iran, the Mandaeans are regarded as Christians, and are included among the country’s three recognized religious minorities. However, Mandaeans regard themselves not as Christians, but as adherents of a religion that predates Christianity in both belief and practice. Mandaeans enjoyed official support as a distinct religion prior to the revolution, but their legal status as a religion since then has been the subject of debate in the Majles and never has been clarified. The small community faces discrimination similar to that faced by the country’s other religious minorities.

Although Sunni Muslims are accorded full respect under the terms of the Constitution, some groups claim to be discriminated against by the Government. In particular Sunnis cite the lack of a Sunni mosque in Tehran, and claim that authorities refuse to authorize construction of a Sunni place of worship in the capital. Sunnis also have accused the state broadcasting company of airing programming insulting to Sunnis.

Sufi organizations outside the country remain concerned about repression by the authorities of Sufi religious practices.

Shortly after the 1979 revolution, the Government repealed the Family Protection Law, a hallmark bill that was adopted in 1967, providing women with increased rights in the home and workplace, and replaced it with a legal system based largely on Shari’a (Islamic law). The Government enforces gender segregation in most public spaces, and prohibits women from interacting openly with unmarried men or men not related to them. Women must ride in a reserved section on public buses and enter public buildings, universities, and airports through separate entrances. Women are prohibited from attending male sporting events, although this restriction does not appear to be enforced universally. While the enforcement of conservative Islamic dress codes has varied with the political climate since the death of Ayatollah Khomeini in 1989, what women wear in public is not entirely a matter of personal choice. Women are subject to harassment by the authorities if their dress or behavior is considered inappropriate and may be sentenced to flogging or imprisonment for such violations. The law prohibits the publication of pictures of uncovered women in the print media, including pictures of foreign women. There are penalties for failure to observe Islamic dress codes at work.

In 1998 the Majles passed legislation that mandated segregation of the sexes in the provision of medical care. The bill provided for women to be treated only by female physicians and men by male physicians, which raised questions about the quality of care that women could receive under such a regime, considering the current imbalance between the number of trained and licensed male and female physicians and specialists.

Muslim women may not marry non-Muslim men. The testimony of a woman is worth only half that of a man in court. A married woman must obtain the written consent of her husband before traveling outside the country.

In October 2000, the Majles passed a bill to raise the legal age of marriage for women from 9 to 15. However, in November 2000, the Council of Guardians rejected the bill as contrary to Islamic law, although even under the current law, marriage at the minimum age is rare. All women, no matter the age, must have the permission of their father or a living male relative in order to marry. The law allows for the practice of Siqeh, or temporary marriage, a Shi’a custom in which a woman or a girl may become the wife of a married or single Muslim male after a simple and brief religious ceremony. The Siqeh marriage may last for a night or as little as 30 minutes. The bond is not recorded on identification documents, and, according to Islamic law, men may have as many Siqeh wives as they wish. Such wives are not granted rights associated with traditional marriage.

Under legislation passed in 1983, women have the right to divorce, and regulations promulgated in 1984 substantially broadened the grounds on which a woman may seek a divorce. However, a husband is not required to cite a reason for divorcing his wife. In 1986 the Government issued a 12-point "contract" to serve as a model for marriage and divorce, which limits the privileges accorded to men by custom and traditional interpretations of Islamic law. The model contract also recognized a divorced woman's right to a share in the property that couples acquire during their marriage and to increased alimony rights. Women who remarry are forced to give up custody of children from earlier marriages to the child’s father. In 1998 the Majles passed a law that granted custody of minor children to the mother in certain divorce cases in which the father is proven unfit to care for the child. The measure was enacted because of the complaints of mothers who had lost custody of their children to former husbands with drug addictions and criminal records.

Abuses of Religious Freedom

According to the National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of the United States, since 1979 more than 200 Baha'is have been killed and 15 have disappeared and are presumed dead. The Government continued to imprison and detain Baha'is based on their religious beliefs.

The Government appears to adhere to a practice of keeping a small number of Baha'is in arbitrary detention, some at risk of execution, at any given time. There were four Baha’is reported to be in prison for practicing their faith at the end of the period covered by this report, two facing life sentences and two facing sentences of 15 years. In addition the Government appears to engage in harassment of the Baha'i community by arresting Baha'is arbitrarily, charging them, and then releasing them, often without dropping the charges against them. Those with charges still pending against them fear arrest at any time.

Two Baha’is, Sirus Zabihi-Moghaddam and Hadayat Kashefi-Najafabadi, were tried in 1998 and later sentenced to death by a revolutionary court in Mashad for practicing their faith. In 2000 the sentences were reduced to 7 and 5 years respectively. Kashefi-Najafabadi was released in October 2001, after serving 4 years of his sentence. Zabihi-Moghaddam, who originally was arrested in November 1997, was released in June 2002.

The Government continued to imprison and detain Baha’is based on their religious beliefs. Manuchehr Khulusi was arrested in June 1999 while visiting fellow Baha’is in the town of Birjand, and was imprisoned until his release in May 2000. During his imprisonment, Khulusi was interrogated, beaten, held in solitary confinement, and denied access to his lawyer. The charges brought against him remain unknown, but they were believed to be related to his faith. The Islamic Revolutionary Court in Mashhad held a 2-day trial in September 1999 and sentenced Khulusi to death in February 2000. Despite Khulusi’s release, it is unclear if the conviction and death sentence against him still stand.

The property rights of Baha’is generally are disregarded. Since 1979 large numbers of private and business properties belonging to Baha’is have been confiscated. During the period covered by this report, 14 Baha'i homes were seized and handed over to an agency of Supreme Leader Khamene'i. Authorities reportedly confiscated Baha'i properties in Kata and forced several families to leave their homes and farmlands. Authorities also imprisoned some farmers, and did not permit others to harvest their crops. In 2000 authorities in Tehran, Isfahan, and Shiraz reportedly also confiscated eight buildings belonging to Baha'is. In one instance, a woman from Isfahan who legally traveled abroad found that her home had been confiscated when she returned home. During the period covered by the report, the Government also seized private homes in which Baha'i youth classes were held despite the owners having proper ownership documents. In 1999 three Baha’i homes in Yazd and one in Arbakan were confiscated because their owners were Baha’is. The Government’s seizure of Baha’i personal property, as well as its denial of Baha’i access to education and employment, are eroding the economic base of the Baha’i community.

In 1998 after a nationwide raid of more than 500 Baha'i homes and offices, as well as numerous arrests, the authorities closed the Baha’i Institute of Higher Learning. Also known as the "Open University," the Institute was established by the Baha’i community shortly after the revolution to offer higher educational opportunities to Baha’i students who had been denied access to the country’s high schools and universities. The Institute remains closed.

It has become somewhat easier for Baha'is to obtain passports in order to travel abroad. In addition some Iranian embassies abroad do not require applicants to state a religious affiliation. In such cases, it is easier for Baha'is to renew passports. Nevertheless, in February 2001, the Government denied visas to foreigners in the Baha'i delegation to the Asia-Pacific Regional Preparatory Conference for the World Conference on Racism, held in Tehran. The delegation was composed of American, Japanese, South Korean, and Indian nationals.

The authorities particularly are vigilant in curbing what is perceived as proselytizing activities by evangelical Christians whose services are conducted in Persian. Government officials have reacted to such activity by closing evangelical churches and arresting converts. Members of evangelical congregations have been required to carry membership cards, photocopies of which must be provided to the authorities. Worshipers are subject to identity checks by authorities posted outside congregation centers. Meetings for evangelical services have been restricted by the authorities to Sundays, and church officials have been ordered to inform the Ministry of Information and Islamic Guidance before admitting new members to their congregations.

Because conversion of a Muslim to a non-Muslim religion is considered apostasy under Shari’as enforced in the country, non-Muslims may not proselytize Muslims without putting their own lives at risk. Evangelical church leaders are subject to pressure from authorities to sign pledges that they would not evangelize Muslims or allow Muslims to attend church services.

Mistreatment of evangelical Christians continued during the period covered by this report. Christian groups have reported instances of government harassment of churchgoers in Tehran, in particular against worshipers at the Assembly of God congregation in the capital. Instances of harassment cited included conspicuous monitoring outside Christian premises by Revolutionary Guards to discourage Muslims or converts from entering church premises, and demands for the presentation of the identity papers of worshipers inside.

Many Jewish groups outside the country cite an increase in anti-Semitic propaganda in the official and semiofficial media as adding to the pressure felt by the Jewish community. One example cited is the periodic publication of the anti-Semitic and fictitious "Protocols of the Elders of Zion," both by the Government and by periodicals associated with hard-line elements of the regime. In 1986 the Iranian Embassy in London was reported to have published and distributed the "Protocols of the Elders of Zion" in English. The Protocols also were published in serial form in the country in 1994 and again in January 1999. On the latter occasion, they were published in Sobh, a conservative monthly publication reportedly aligned with the security services.

In February and March 1999, 13 Jews were arrested in the cities of Shiraz and Isfahan. Among the group were several prominent rabbis, teachers of Hebrew, and their students. The charges centered on alleged acts of espionage on behalf of Israel, an offense punishable by death. The 13 were detained for over a year before trial, largely in solitary confinement, without official charges or access to lawyers. In April 2000, the defendants were appointed lawyers, and a closed trial commenced in a revolutionary court in Shiraz. Human rights groups and governments around the world criticized the lack of due process in the proceedings. The UNSR characterized the proceedings as "in no way fair."

On July 1, 2000, 10 of the 13, along with 2 Muslim defendants, were convicted on charges of illegal contact with Israel, conspiracy to form an illegal organization, and recruiting agents. They received prison sentences ranging from 4 to 13 years. Three were acquitted. The lawyers of those convicted filed an appeal and on September 21, 2000, an appeals court overturned the convictions for forming an illegal organization and recruiting agents, but upheld the convictions for illegal contacts with Israel. Their sentences were reduced to between 2 and 9 years’ imprisonment. One of the 10 convicted was released in February 2001 upon completion of his prison term. A second was released at the end of his prison term in January 2002.

Jewish groups outside the country noted that the March 1999 arrest of the 13 Jewish individuals coincided with an increase in anti-Semitic propaganda in newspapers and journals associated with hardline elements of the Government. Since the beginning of the trial, Jewish businesses in Tehran and Shiraz have been targets of vandalism and boycotts, and Jews reportedly have suffered personal harassment and intimidation.

In 2002 the group Families of Iranian Jewish Prisoners (FIJP) published the names of 12 Iranian Jews who disappeared while attempting to escape from Iran in the 1990's. Babak Shaoulian Tehrani (born in 1977) and Shaheen Nikkhoo (1974) disappeared on June 8, 1994; Behzad (Kamran) Salari (1973) and Farhad Ezzati (1972) on September 21, 1994; Homayoun Balazadeh (1958), Omid Solouki (1979), Reuben Cohan-Masliah (1977), and Ibrahim Cohan-Masliah (1978) on December 8, 1994; Syrus Gaharamany (1939), Ibrahim Gaharamany (1937), Norallah Rbizadeh (Felfeli) (1952) on February 12, 1997; and Es-haagh Hassid (Hashid) (1933) on February 15, 1997. Hassid was last seen in Khorramabad Province. The other 11 all disappeared in Baluchistan Province. Their families have had no contact with them since the dates of their disappearance, but reported anecdotal evidence that some of them are alive and being held in prison. The Government never has provided any information regarding their whereabouts and has not charged any of them with crimes. FIJP believes that the Government has dealt with these cases differently than other such cases because the 12 persons involved are Jewish.

Numerous Sunni clerics have been killed in recent years, some allegedly by government agents.

There were no reports of government harassment of the Zoroastrian community during the period covered by this report.

The Government restricts the movement of several senior religious leaders, some of whom have been under house arrest for years, and often charges members of religious minorities with crimes such as drug offenses, "confronting the regime," and apostasy.

The Special Clerical Court (SCC) system, which was established in 1987 to investigate offenses and crimes committed by clerics, and which is overseen directly by the Supreme Leader, is not provided for in the Constitution, and operates outside the domain of the judiciary. In particular critics alleged that the clerical courts were used to prosecute certain clerics for expressing controversial ideas and for participating in activities outside the area of religion, including journalism.

During the latter part of 2000, a Special Clerical Court began the trial of Hojatoleslam Hassan Yousefi Eshkevari, a cleric who participated in a conference in Berlin on Iran, on charges of apostasy, "corruption on earth," "declaring war on God," and "denial of basic religious principles," which potentially carry the death penalty. Eshkevari has called for more liberal interpretations of Islamic law in certain areas. The verdict was not announced, but, according to Amnesty International, Eshkevari widely was reported to have been sentenced to death. In November 2001, following domestic and international criticism, his sentence reportedly was reduced to 30 months' imprisonment and removal of his status as a cleric. In November 1999, former Interior Minister and Vice President Abdollah Nouri was sentenced by a branch of the SCC to a 5-year prison term for allegedly publishing "anti-Islamic" articles, insulting government officials, promoting friendly relations with the United States, and providing illegal publicity to dissident cleric Ayatollah Hossein Ali Montazeri in the pages of Khordad, a newspaper that was established by Nouri in late 1998 and closed at the time of his arrest. Nouri used the public trial to attack the legitimacy of the SCC.

In January 2001, judicial authorities closed Kiyan, a 10-year-old independent journal specializing in religious and philosophical issues. The Tehran General Court ordered the closure. The Judge stated that Kiyan had "published lies, disturbed public opinion and insulted sacred religion."

Laws based on religion were used to stifle freedom of expression. Independent newspapers and magazines have been closed, and leading publishers and journalists were imprisoned on vague charges of "insulting Islam" or "calling into question the Islamic foundation of the Republic." In November 2000, a Revolutionary Court began the trials of 17 writers, intellectuals, and political figures who took part in an April 2000 conference in Berlin regarding the implications of the February 2000 Majles elections. In January 2001, verdicts on charges including "insulting Islam" were announced after unfair and closed trials. At least eight of the defendants were sentenced to custodial sentences. Charges were reduced on appeal in December 2001,. Some individuals were acquitted, some sentences were reduced, and other sentences were converted to fines.

Societal Attitudes

The continuous activity of the country’s pre-Islamic, non-Muslim communities, such as Zoroastrians, Jews, and Christians, has accustomed the population to the presence of non-Muslims in society. However, government actions create a threatening atmosphere for some religious minorities.

The Jewish community has been reduced to less than one-half of its prerevolutionary size. Some of this emigration is connected with the larger, general waves of departures following the establishment of the Islamic Republic, but some also stems from continued perceived anti-Semitism on the part of the Government and within society.

The Government’s anti-Israel policies and the trial of the 13 Jews in 2000, along with the perception among some of the country’s radicalized elements that Iranian Jews support Zionism and the State of Israel, created a threatening atmosphere for the Jewish community (see Section II). Many Jews have sought to limit their contact with or support for the State of Israel out of fear of reprisal. Recent anti-American and anti-Israeli demonstrations have included the denunciation of "Jews," as opposed to the past practice of denouncing only "Israel" and "Zionism," adding to the threatening atmosphere for the community.

Views of the US Government

The U.S. Government makes clear its objections to the Government’s treatment of religious minorities in public statements, support for relevant U.N. and nongovernmental organization (NGO) efforts, and diplomatic contacts with other countries. In October 2001, the Secretary of State designated Iran as a "country of particular concern" under the International Religious Freedom Act, for particularly severe violations of religious freedom. This action followed similar designations in September 1999 and September 2000.

The U.S. State Department spokesman on numerous occasions has addressed the situation of the Baha’i and Jewish communities. The U.S. Government has encouraged other governments to make similar statements and has urged those governments to raise the issue of religious freedom in discussions with the Iranian Government.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Discrimination against non-Muslims in Iran."

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History of Iran

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

The ancient nation of Iran was historically known to the West as Persia until March 21, 1935 (see also History of Persia, History of Levant). Once a major empire in its own right, it has been overrun frequently and has had its territory altered throughout the centuries. Invaded by Arabs, Seljuk Turks, Mongols, and others--and often caught up in the affairs of larger powers--Iran has always reasserted its national identity and has developed as a distinct political and cultural entity.

Archeological findings have placed knowledge of Iranian prehistory at middle paleolithic times (100,000 years ago). The earliest sedentary cultures date from 18,000-14,000 years ago. The sixth millennium BC saw a fairly sophisticated agricultural society and proto-urban population centers. Many dynasties have ruled Iran, the first of which was under the Achaemenids (559 - 330 BC), a dynasty founded by Cyrus the Great. After the Hellenistic period (300 - 250 BC) came the Parthian (250 BC - AD 226 ) and the Sassanid (226 - 651) dynasties.

The seventh century Arab-Muslim conquest of Iran was followed by conquests by the Seljuk Turks, the Mongols, and Tamerlane. Iran underwent a revival under the Safavid dynasty (1502-1736), the most prominent figure of which was Shah Abbas. The conqueror Nadir Shah and his successors were followed by the Zand dynasty, founded by Karim Kahn, and later the Qajar (1795-1925) and the Pahlavi dynasties (1925-1979).

Modern Iranian history began with a nationalist uprising against the Shah (who remained in power) in 1905, the granting of a limited constitution in 1906 (making the country a constitutional monarchy), and the discovery of oil in 1908. The key to the region was the British discovery of oil, see William Knox D'Arcy and British Petroleum. Control of the region was disputed between Great Britain and Russia, codified in an agreement of 1907 dividing the region into spheres of influence.

During World War I the country was occupied by British and Russian forces but was essentially neutral. In 1919, Britain attempted to establish a protectorate in Iran, aided by the Soviet Union's withdrawal in 1921. In that year a military coup established Reza Khan, an Iranian officer of the Persian Cossack Brigade, as dictator and then herediatry Shah of the new Pahlavi dynasty (1925). Reza Shah Pahlavi, ruling for almost 16 years and installing the new Pahlavi dynasty, thwarting the British attempt at control, and pushing to have the country developed.

Under his reign, Iran began to modernize and to secularize politics, and the central government reasserted its authority over the tribes and provinces.

During World War II, Iran was a vital link in the Allied supply line for lend-lease supplies to the Soviet Union. In August, 1941, a combined British and Soviet force occupied Iran. In September Reza abdicated in favour of his son Muhammad Reza Shah Pahlavi, who ruled until 1979.

At the Tehran Conference of 1943 the Tehran Declaration guaranteed the post-war independence and boundaries of Iran. However when the war did end the Soviets supported a revolt in the north which created the People's Republic of Azerbaijan and the Kurdish People's Republic in late 1945, both effective Soviet puppet regimes. After World War II, Soviet troops stationed in northwestern Iran not only refused to withdraw but backed revolts that established short-lived, pro-Soviet separatist regimes in the northern regions of Azerbaijan and Kurdistan. These were ended in 1946. The Azerbaijan revolt crumbled after U.S. and UN pressure forced a Soviet withdrawal and Iranian forces suppressed the Kurdish revolt.

Soviet troops did not withdraw from Iran proper until May, 1946 after receiving a promise of oil concessions. The Soviet republics in the north were soon overthrown and the oil concessions were revoked.

In 1951, Premier Mohammed Mossadeq, a militant nationalist, forced the parliament to nationalize the British-owned oil industry. Despite British pressure, including a economic blockade which caused real hardship, the nationalization continued. The National Front leader, Muhammad Mussadegh, was briefly forced from power in 1952 but quickly returned and forced the Shah to flee. The Shah returned in mid-1953 and again forced Mussadegh from office on August 19 with U.S. CIA support, Mussadegh was arrested and a new president was appointed.

In return for the US support the Shah agreed, in 1954, to allow an international consortium of British (40%), American (40%), French (6%), and Dutch (14%) companies to run the Iranian oil facilities for the next 25 years, with profits shared equally. In other words, 0% of control or profits went to Iran. There was a return to stability in the late 1950s and the 1960s. In 1957 martial law was ended after 16 years and Iran became closer to the West, joining the Baghdad Pact and receiving military and economic aid from the US. The Iranian government began a broad program of reforms to modernize the country, notably changing the quasi-feudal land system.

However the reforms did not greatly improve economic conditions and the liberal pro-Western policies alienated certain Islamic religious and political groups. From the mid-1960s the political situation was becoming increasingly unstable, with organisations such as Mujaheddin-e-Khalq (MEK) emerging. In 1961, Iran initiated a series of economic, social, and administrative reforms that became known as the Shah's White Revolution. The core of this program was land reform. Modernization and economic growth proceeded at an unprecedented rate, fueled by Iran's vast petroleum reserves, the third-largest in the world.

The Premier Hassan Ali Mansur was assassinated in 1965 and the internal security service, SAVAK, became more violently active. It is estimated that 13,000-13,500 people were killed by the SAVAK during this period of time, and thousands more were arrested and tortured. The Islamic clergy, headed by the Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini (who had been exiled in 1964), were becoming increasingly vociferous.

Internationally relations with Iraq fell into a steep decline, mainly due to a dispute over the Shatt-al-Arab waterway which a 1937 agreement gave to Iraq. Following a number of clashes in April, 1969, Iran abrogated the 1937 accord and demanded a renegotiation. Iran greatly increased its defense budget and by the early 1970s was the region's srongest military power. In November, 1971 Iranian forces seized control of three islands at the mouth of the Persian Gulf, in response Iraq expelling thousands of Iranian nationals.

In mid-1973, the Shah returned the oil industry to national control. Following the Arab-Israeli War of October, 1973, Iran did not join the Arab oil embargo against the West and Israel. Instead it used the situation to raise oil prices, using the money gained for modernization and to increase defense spending.

In the early 1970s, the Mujaheddin-e-Khalq organisation assassinated Tehran-based US military personnel and US civilians involved in military contracts, seeking to weaken the regime and remove foreign influence.

A border dispute between Iraq and Iran was resolved with the signing of the Algiers Accord on March 6, 1975.

However the economic improvements tended to only benefit a very small group and succeeded in disaffecting the vast majority of the population, culminating in widespread religious led protests throughout the late 1970s. There was widespread religious and political opposition to the Shah's rule and programs--especially SAVAK, the hated internal security and intelligence service. Martial law was declared in September 1978 for all major cities but the Shah recognized the erosion of his power-base and fled Iran on January 16, 1979.

On February 1, 1979, Ayatollah Khomeini returned from France (after 15 years in exile there and in Turkey and Iraq) to direct a revolution resulting in a new, theocratic republic guided by Islamic principles, overthrowing the shah's government on February 11 and becoming Iran's national religious leader. The new government was extremely conservative. It nationalized industry and restored Islamic traditions in culture and law. Western influence were banned and the existing pro-West elite was quick to join the shah in exile. There were clashes between rival religious factions and brutal repression quickly became commonplace.

Supported by Mujaheddin-e-Khalq, militant Iranian students seized the US Embassy in Tehran on November 4, 1979 and held it until January 20, 1981 (see Iran hostage crisis). The Carter administration severed diplomatic relations and imposed economic sanctions on April 7, 1980 and later that month attempted a rescue. A commando mission was aborted on April 25 after mechanical problems grounded rescue helicopters and eight American troops were killed in a mid-air collision. Then on May 24 the International Court of Justice called for the hostages' release. Finally Ronald Reagan ended the crisis on the day of his inauguration, agreeing to nearly all the Iranian terms.

On September 22, 1980 Iraq invaded Iran, see Iran-Iraq War.

In 1981, Mujaheddin-e-Khalq detonated bombs in the head office of the Islamic Republic Party and the Premier's office, killing 70 high-ranking Iranian officials, including Ayatollah Mohammad Beheshti (chief Justice), Mohammad-Ali Rajaei (President), and Mohammad-Javad Bahonar (Premier).

Following Khomeini's death on June 3, 1989, the Assembly of Experts--an elected body of senior clerics--chose the outgoing president of the republic, Sayid Ali Khamenei, to be his successor as national religious leader in what proved to be a smooth transition.

In August 1989, Ali Akbar Hashemi-Rafsanjani, the speaker of the National Assembly, was elected President by an overwhelming majority.

During the Gulf War (1991) the country remained relatively neutral, restricting its action to the comdemnation of US and allowing Iraqi aircraft and refugees into the country.

President Rafsanjani was re-elected in 1993 with a more modest majority; some Western observers attributed the reduced voter turnout to disenchantment with the deteriorating economy. Rafsanjani was succeeded in 1997 by the moderate Mohammad Khatami. This led the country into a dangerous rift between a government seeking reform and moderate liberalization against a clergy still extremely conservative. Khatami was re-elected in June, 2001 but his efforts have been repeatedly blocked by the religious Guardian Council.

The country is in a poor economic state and its associations with both international terrorism and a potential nuclear capacity are unlikely to aid it. While certain European countries seek to normalise relations the US is still hostile. Average salary in Iran, is about 1200$/year.

Further reading

• All the Shah's Men: An American Coup and the Roots of Middle East Terror, Stephen Kinzer, 2003, ISBN 0471265179

  Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "History of Iran."

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Iran

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

The Islamic Republic of Iran is a country in the Middle East, in the southwest of Asia. It was known until 1935 as Persia. The country borders Pakistan and Afghanistan to the east; Turkmenistan to northeast, the Caspian Sea in the middle north and Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest; Turkey and Iraq to the west and finally the waters of the Persian Gulf and the Arabian Sea to the south.

Jomhuri-ye Eslami-ye Iran

(In Detail)
National motto: Allahu Akbar (Arabic: "God is greater")
Official language	Persian
Capital	Tehran
Rahbar ("leader")	Ali Khamenei
President	Mohammad Khatami
Area  - Total  - % water	Ranked 17th 1,648,000 km² 0.7%
Population  - Total (2002)  - Density	Ranked 18th 66,622,704 40/km²
Establishment  - Date	Islamic Revolution April 1, 1979
Currency	Rial
Time zone	UTC +3.30
National anthem	Sorood-e Jomhoori-e Eslami
Internet TLD	.IR
Calling Code	98

History

Main article: History of Iran

Persia emerged in the 6th century BC under the Achaemenid dynasty as a vast empire that controlled an area from India to Greece. It was conquered by Alexander the Great, but soon after Persia regained its independence in the form of the Parthian and Sassanid Empires. The latter was defeated by Islamic Arab forces in the 7th century AD, who were followed by Seljuk Turks, the Mongols, and Tamerlane.

The 16th century saw renewed independence with the Safavids and then other lines of kings or shahs. During the 19th century Persia came under pressure from both Russia and the United Kingdom and a process of modernisation began that continued into the 20th century. In 1953, prime minister Mohammed Mossadeq, who had been elected to parliament in 1923 and again in 1944, and who had been prime minister since 1951, was removed from power in a complex plot orchestrated by British and US intelligence agencies, leading to the dictatorship of the shah (Iran's monarch), Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. With strong support from the USA and the UK, the Shah further modernised Iranian industry but crushed civil liberties. His autocratic rule, including systematic torture and other human rights violations, led to revolution and overthrow of his regime in 1979. After over a year of struggle between a variety of different political groups, an Islamic republic was established under the Ayatollah Khomeini.

The new theocratic regime instituted many conservative and often repressive Islamic reforms, as well as engaging in an anti-Western course, in particular against the United States. Strict Islamic law was implemented, and women lost many of their rights. Human rights abuses, such as torture and violent executions continue. In 1980 Iran was attacked by neighbouring Iraq and the destructive Iran-Iraq War continued until 1988. However, in more recent years, the democratic political structure has led to the election of many reformist politicians, including the president, Mohammad Khatami. During the first decade of the 21st century, the struggle for power between reformists and conservatives over the future of the country continues through a mix of electoral politics and restrictions on civil liberties.

Politics

Main article: Politics of Iran

Since the revolution of 1979 the supreme leader is the rahbar, or in absence of a single leader a council of religious leaders. They are elected from the clerical establishment on the basis of their qualifications and the high popular esteem in which they are held. The rahbar appoints the six religious members of the 12-member Council of Guardians, as well as the highest judicial authorities and is commander-in-chief of the armed forces.

The head of state is the president, elected by universal suffrage to a 4-year term by an absolute majority of votes and supervises the affairs of the executive branch. All presidential candidates must be approved by the Council prior to running. After his election, the president appoints and supervises the Council of Ministers (the cabinet), coordinates government decisions, and selects government policies to be placed before the parliament. The Council of Guardians certifies the competence of candidates for the presidency and the parliament.

The unicameral Iranian parliament, the Islamic Consultative Assembly or ''Majles-e-Shura-ye-Eslami'\', consists of 290 members elected to a 4-year term. The members are elected by direct and secret ballot. All legislation from the assembly must be reviewed by the Council of Guardians. The Council's six lay-members, all lawyers appointed by parliament, vote only on limited questions of the constitutionality of legislation; the six religious members consider all bills for conformity to Islamic principles.

Political parties are technically illegal, though many informal organisations of politically like-minded people exist.

Provinces

Main article: Provinces of Iran

Iran consists of 28 provinces (ostanha, singular - ostan):

• Ardabil
• Bushehr
• Chahar Mahaal and Bakhtiari
• East Azerbaijan
• Esfahan
• Fars
• Gilan
• Golestan
• Hamadan
• Hormozgan
• Ilam
• Kerman
• Kermanshah
• Khorasan
• Khuzestan
• Kohkiluyeh and Buyer Ahmad
• Kurdistan
• Lorestan
• Markazi
• Mazandaran
• Qazvin
• Qom
• Semnan
• Sistan and Baluchistan
• Tehran
• West Azerbaijan
• Yazd
• Zanjan

Geography

Main article: Geography of Iran

The Iranian landscape is dominated by rugged mountain ranges that separate various basins or plateaus from one another. The populous western part is the most mountainous, with ranges such as the Zagros and Elburz Mountains, the latter of which also contains Iran's highst point, the Damavand at 5,607 m. The eastern half consists mostly of uninhabited desert basins with the occasional salt lake.

The only large plains are found along the coast of the Caspian Sea and at the northern end of the Persian Gulf, where Iran borders on the mouth of the Shatt al-Arab. Smaller, discontinuous plains are found along the remaining coast of the Persian Gulf, the Strait of Hormuz and the Arabian Sea. The Iranian climate is mostly arid or semiarid, though subtropical along the Caspian coast.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Iran

Iran's economy is a mixture of central planning, state ownership of oil and other large enterprises, village agriculture, and small-scale private trading and service ventures. The current administration has continued to follow the market reform plans of the previous one and has indicated that it will pursue diversification of Iran's oil-reliant economy.

The strong oil market in 1996 helped ease financial pressures on Iran and allowed for Tehran's timely debt service payments. Iran's financial situation tightened in 1997 and deteriorated further in 1998 because of lower oil prices. The subsequent rise in oil prices in 1999-2000 afforded Iran fiscal breathing room but does not solve Iran's structural economic problems, including the encouragement of foreign investment.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Iran

Almost two-thirds of Iran's people are of Aryan origin and speak one of the Indo-Iranian languages, though only Persian (Farsi), which is written in the Arabic alphabet, is an official language. The major groups in this category include Persians (51%), Gilaki and Mazandarani (8%), Kurds (7%), Lurs (2%), and Baluchi (2%). The remainder are primarily Turkic people such as the Azeri (24%) and Turkmen (2%), but also include Arabs (3%), Armenians, Jews, and Assyrians and others. Arabic, being the language of the Qur'an, is taught in schools as well.

Most Iranians are Muslims; 89% belong to the Shiite branch of Islam, the official state religion, and about 10% belong to the Sunni branch, which predominates in most Muslim countries. Non-Muslim religious minorities include Baha'is and Zoroastrians, both being religions that originated in Iran, as well as Jews and Christians. Only the latter three are officially recognised minority religions. Iran's population size increased dramatically in the latter part of the 20th century.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Iran

• List of Iranians
• Music of Iran

Miscellaneous topics

• Communications in Iran
• Football in Iran
• Foreign relations of Iran
• Iran's nuclear program
• Transportation in Iran
• Military of Iran

External Links

• Wilayah - Official site of the Ayatollah
• Presidency of the Islamic Republic of Iran - Official presidential site

---

Countries of the world  |  Asia

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Iran."

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Iranian national football team

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Goalkeepers:

• Ebrahim Mirzapour - Foolad Khuzestan
• Davoud Fanaei - Persepolis Teheran
• Mehdi Rahmati - Fajr Sepassi

Defenders:

• Rahman Rezaei - AC Perugia, Italy
• Yahya Golmohammadi - Persepolis Teheran
• Afshin Peyrovani - Persepolis Teheran
• Sohrab Bakhtiyarizadeh - Esteghlal Teheran
• Jalal Kameli-Mofrad - Foolad Khuzestan
• Saeid Lotfi - Paykan Teheran
• Mohammad Nosrati - Pas Teheran
• Hamid Aziz-zadeh - Zob Ahan Esfahan

Midfielders:

• Javad Nekounam - Pas Teheran
• Moharram Navidkia - Sepahan Esfahan
• Ali-Reza Nikbakht Vahdedi - Esteghlal Teheran
• Yadollah Akbari - Esteghlal Teheran
• Mehrdad Minavand - Persepolis Teheran
• Hamed Kavianpour - Al Wasl, UAE
• Mehdi Amirabadi - Saipa Teheran
• Ali Badaavi - Foolad Khuzestan
• Iman Mobali - Foolad Khuzestan
• Hossein Kaabi - Foolad Khuzestan
• Mehdi Mahdavikia - Hamburger SV, Germany
• Darioush Yazdani - Sporting Charleroi, Belgium

Strikers:

• Ali Daei - Al Shabab, UAE
• Vahid Hashemian - Vfl Bochum, Germany
• Ali Karimi - Al Ahly, UAE
• Javad Kazemian - Al Ahly, UAE
• Farhad Majidi - Al Wasl, UAE
• Mohsen Bayatinia - Pas Teheran
• Khodadad Azizi - Pas Teheran
• Ali Samereh - Esteghlal Teheran
• Siavash Akbarpour - Fajr Sepassi

  Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Iranian national football team."

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List of cities in Iran

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

This is a list of cities in Iran.

• Abadan
• Esfahan
• Mashhad
• Qom
• Tabriz
• Teheran

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "List of cities in Iran."

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Transportation in Iran

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Railways:

total: 6,130 km

broad gauge: 94 km 1.676-m gauge

standard gauge: 6,036 km 1.435-m gauge (187 km electrified)

note: broad-gauge track is employed at the borders with Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan which have broad-gauge rail systems; 41 km of the standard-gauge, electrified track is in suburban service at Tehran (2001)

City with underground railway system: Tehran

Highways:

total: 140,200 km

paved: 49,440 km (including 470 km of expressways)

unpaved: 90,760 km (1998 est.)

Waterways: 904 km

note: the Shatt al Arab is usually navigable by maritime traffic for about 130 km; channel has been dredged to 3 m and is in use

Pipelines: crude oil 5,900 km; petroleum products 3,900 km; natural gas 4,550 km

Ports and harbors: Abadan (largely destroyed in fighting during 1980-88 war), Ahvaz, Bandar 'Abbas, Bandar-e Anzali, Bushehr, Bandar-e Emam Khomeyni, Bandar-e Lengeh, Bandar-e Mahshahr, Bandar-e Torkaman, Chabahar (Bandar Beheshti), Jazireh-ye Khark, Jazireh-ye Lavan, Jazireh-ye Sirri, Khorramshahr (limited operation since November 1992), Now Shahr

Merchant marine:
total: 138 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 3,517,751 GRT/6,208,230 DWT
ships by type: bulk 45, cargo 36, chemical tanker 4, combination bulk 1, container 7, liquified gas 1, multi-functional large load carrier 6, petroleum tanker 26, refrigerated cargo 2, roll-on/roll-off 9, short-sea passenger 1 (1999 est.)

Airports: 288 (1999 est.)

Airports - with paved runways:
total: 112
over 3,047 m: 38
2,438 to 3,047 m: 21
1,524 to 2,437 m: 23
914 to 1,523 m: 24
under 914 m: 6 (1999 est.)

Airports - with unpaved runways:
total: 176
over 3,047 m: 2
2,438 to 3,047 m: 5
1,524 to 2,437 m: 14
914 to 1,523 m: 123
under 914 m: 32 (1999 est.)

National airline:

• Iran Air

Heliports: 11 (1999 est.)

See also : Iran

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Transportation in Iran."

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Abbreviations & Acronyms: Iran

The following table is compiled from various sources, across various languages. When English abbreviations or acronyms come from a non-English source, this is noted.
Entry	Source	Expression	Field
IRAN	English	Inspect and Repair as Necessary	N/A
IR	Danish	Den Islamiske Republik Iran	Geography
IR	Dutch	Islamitische Republiek Iran	Geography
IR	English	Iran	Geography
IR	German	Islamische Republik Iran	Geography
IR	Swedish	Islamiska republiken Iran	Geography
Source: compiled by the editor, based on several corpora (additional references).

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Synonyms: Iran Synonyms: Islamic Republic of Iran (n), Persia (n). (additional references)

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Crosswords: Iran

English words defined with "Iran": Abadan, Afghanistan, Allium paradoxum, Artemisia annua, Aspadana ♦ Balochi, Baluchi, bezoar goat, Bryonia alba ♦ Calamintha grandiflora, calpac, calpack, capital of Iran, Capra aegagrus, Caspian, Caspian Sea, Centaurea imperialis, Clinopodium grandiflorum, comfrey, cumfrey ♦ Demavend, devil-s turnip ♦ Esfahan ♦ few-flowered leek ♦ Husain, Husayn, Hussein ♦ immortelle, Irani, Iranian, Iranian capital, Iranian language, Iranian monetary unit, Iranian rial, Iran-Iraq War, irontree, ironwood, ironwood tree, Isfahan, Islamic Republic of Iran, Islamic State of Afghanistan ♦ kalpac, Kurdish ♦ large-flowered calamint ♦ Mashhad, meshed, Middle East, Mohammed Reza Pahlavi, Mohammed Reza Pahlevi ♦ Near East ♦ Pahlavi, Pahlevi, pasang, peacock-throne, Persia, Persian, Persian Gulf ♦ Qum ♦ rial ♦ Saddam bin Hussein at-Takriti, Saddam Hussein, Satureja grandiflora, Second World War, shah, Shia, Shiah, Shiah Islam, Shiraz, special, sweet sultan, sweet wormwood ♦ Tabriz, Tajiki, Teheran, Tehran, the Shiites, Turkmen, Turkmenia, Turkmenistan, Turkomen ♦ white bryony, World War II ♦ Xeranthemum annuum. (references)

Specialty definitions using "Iran": Axis of evil ♦ D-8 ♦ Ghebers ♦ Persian Calendar ♦ Ring of Fire ♦ the Developing Eight Economic Cooperation Group. (references)

Non-English Usage: "Iran" is also a word in the following languages with English translations in parentheses. Afrikaan (Iran, Persia), Albanian (Iran), Dutch (Iran, Persia), French (Iran, Persia), German (Iran, Iran (ir), Persia), Italian (Iran), Papiamen (Iran, Persia), Romanian (Iran, Persia), Serbo-Croatian (iran), Swedish (Iran), Turkish (iranian, persian).

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Modern Usage: Iran

Domain	Usage
Screenplays	What? How dare you! If I find out who this is, I'll staple a flag to your butt and mail you to Iran! (The Simpsons; writing credit: Artur Brauner; Paul Hengge)
Lyrics	The difference in Iraq and Iran. (Where Were You (When The World Stopped Turning); performing artist: Alan Jackson) Ayatollah's in Iran, Russians in Afghanistan (We Didn't Start The Fire; performing artist: Billy Joel)
Movie/TV Titles	The Shah of Iran (1972) Iran Ki Ek Raat (1949) Det nye Persien Iran (1939) Iran - sous le voile des apparences (2003) Ai Iran (1990)
Source: compiled by the editor from various references; see credits.

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Commercial Usage: Iran

Domain	Title
References	The 2000 Import and Export Market for Edible Nuts Excluding Oil Nuts in Iran (reference) A Strategic Assessment of Iran, 2000 edition (reference) Strategic Assessment of Iran,1999 edition (reference) A Strategic Profile of Iran,1999 edition (reference) The 2000 Import and Export Market for Frozen Fish Excluding Fillets in Iran (reference) (more reference examples)
Books	Searching for Hassan: An American Family's Journey Home to Iran (reference) (more book examples)
Periodicals	Iran (reference) Iran Exports & Imports (reference) Iran Quarterly Report (reference) Iran Today (reference) (more periodical examples)
Theater & Movies	20th Century with Mike Wallace - Iran and Iraq (reference) (more DVD examples; more video examples)
Music	Music of Lorestan Iran (reference) Anthology of World Music: Iran (reference) Classical Music of Iran (reference) (more classical music examples; more popular music examples)
Source: compiled by the editor from various references; see credits.

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Image Slideshow: Iran

Photos: Iran More pictures...

Illustrations: Iran More pictures...

Computer Images: Iran More pictures...

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Photo Album: Iran

Thumbnail	Description & Credit	Thumbnail	Description & Credit
	The Dasht-e Kevir, or Great Salt Desert, is the largest desert in Iran. It is a primarily uninhabited wasteland, composed of mud and salt marshes covered with crusts of salt that protect the meager moisture from completely evaporating. Credit: NASA.		In an area north of the city of Al-Basrah, Iraq, which borders Iran, a former wetland has been drained and walled off. Now littered with minefields and gun emplacements, it is a staging area for military exercises. Credit: NASA.
	Mashad, Iran. Credit: Geodesy - Measuring the Earth.		Zahedan, Iran. Credit: Geodesy - Measuring the Earth.
	A laboratory at Babol, Iran, where work on a WHO cancer project is in progress. / WHO p. Credit: National Library of Medicine; photo by J. Mohr..		... an opium addict in Iran lights his pipe of dreams. / WHO photo. Credit: National Library of Medicine.
	Earthquake victims in Tehran, Iran, praying to Allah for protection as they camp with their belongings in the open air northwest of Tehran. Credit: Library of Congress.		Kemal Atatürk, Ismet Inönü, and Reza Shah Pahlavi, the Shah of Iran, with military officers, in Turkey. Credit: Library of Congress.
	A railroad yard somewhere in Iran. Credit: Library of Congress.		American and British railroad workers at a roundhouse somewhere in Iran. Credit: Library of Congress.
Source: pictures compiled by the editor from various references; see picture credits.

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Non-Fiction Usage: Iran

Subject	Topic	Quote
Business		In the wake of the decision, the Government suspended its "critical dialog" with Iran and recalled its ambassador. (references)
		A "major" market is defined as a country where Iran represents a substantially large share of either imports or exports. (references)
		From these figures, rankings are calculated to allow managers to prioritize Iran compared to other major country markets. (references)
Civil Liberties	Saudi Arabia	The change corresponds with improving relations between Saudi Arabia and Iran. (references)
	Tajikistan	In addition pilgrims were allowed to travel to Mecca and Medina by bus from Mashhad, Iran. (references)
	Azerbaijan	Residents of border areas in both Azerbaijan and Iran travel across the border without visas. (references)
Economic History	Madagascar	Major suppliers--EU, France, Iran, Japan. (references)
	Georgia	These are Austria, Bulgaria, Egypt, and Iran. (references)
	Iran	Iran spends about 4% of its GDP on its military. (references)
Human Rights	Afghanistan	The most heavily mined areas are the provinces bordering Iran and Pakistan. (references)
	Iran	However, the Government did not allow the UNSR for Human Rights in Iran to visit the country during the year. (references)
	Iraq	Iran reports that the Government still has not accounted for 5,000 Iranian prisoners of war (POW's) missing since the Iran-Iraq War. (references)
Minorities	Bahrain	Many are second-generation or third-generation residents whose ancestors emigrated from Iran. (references)
	Sweden	Approximately 11 percent of Sweden's population is foreign born, with the largest groups being from Finland, Iran, and the former Yugoslavia. (references)
	Iran	The law stipulates penalties for government workers who do not observe "Islam's principles and rules." Article 144 of the Constitution states that "the Army of the Islamic Republic of Iran must be an Islamic army," which is "committed to an Islamic ideology," and must "recruit into its service individuals who have faith in the objectives of the Islamic Revolution and are devoted to the cause of achieving its goals." Apostasy, or conversion from Islam to another religion, is punishable by death. (references)
Political Economy	Oman	Oman is strategically located at the entrance to the Persian Gulf opposite Iran. (references)
	Oman	Oman and Iran maintain correct political relations, and have limited economic interaction, as is the case with Iraq. (references)
	Iran	Iran has a mixed economy that is heavily dependent on export earnings from the country's extensive petroleum reserves. (references)
Trade	Turkey	Turkey, along with Pakistan and Iran, is a founding member of the Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO). (references)
	Mauritius	The Indian Ocean Rim Association for Regional Cooperation (IOR-ARC) as established in March 1997. It comprises Mauritius, Madagascar, Mozambique, Tanzania, Kenya, South Africa, Australia, India, Sri Lanka, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, Oman and Yemen, Bangladesh, Seychelles, Thailand, Iran, and the United Arab Emirates. (references)
Travel	Morocco	Entry visas are required for foreign nationals from certain countries, including Egypt, Iran, Sudan and Syria. (references)
Worker Rights	Azerbaijan	Following parental permission for such marriages the women were transported to Iran to work as prostitutes. (references)
	United Arab Emirates	The boy reportedly was kidnaped from his family by a Pakistani woman in 1998 and brought to Abu Dhabi through Iran under a false name. (references)
	Azerbaijan	Traffickers usually sent women to the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Iran, Turkey, or Western Europe, mainly Germany, to work as prostitutes. (references)
Source: compiled by the editor from ICON Group International, Inc.; see credits.

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Spoken Usage: Iran

Speaker	Phrase(s)
Al Hunt	General, you and Secretary Rumsfeld in recent days have spoken frequently about the increasingly bad behavior of Iraq and of Iran. You were asked a question about North Korea the other day, and you said basically not much has changed there.
Bob Graham	I believe there was evidence that Iran was involved in the shipment of those weapons, but I don't think that was by any means the totality of the concern.
Donald Rumsfeld	Oh, my goodness, Iran is certainly not an ally. That's a word that's reserved for a relationship that's noticeably different than ours with Iran.
Robert Novak	There was some surprise, Senator, that Iran was listed among those three nations, and the report had been that it was because of the alleged participation of the government in the arms shipment to terrorists in Israel.
Rush Limbaugh	Carter destroyed the economy, and ushered in the current theocratic fundamentalist regime in Iran.
Source: compiled by the editor from various references; see credits.

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Speeches: Iran

Speaker	Term	Phrase(s)
Jimmy Carter	1977-1981	We are prepared to work with the government of Iran to develop a new and mutually beneficial relationship.
Ronald Reagan	1981-1989	I took a risk with regard to our action in Iran.
Source: compiled by the editor from various references.

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Usage Frequency: Iran

"Iran" is generally used as a noun (proper) -- approximately 100.00% of the time. "Iran" is used about 1,990 times out of a sample of 100 million words spoken or written in English. Its rank is based on over 700,000 words used in the English language. Some parts-of-speech are not covered due to the samples used by the British National Corpus. (note: percents less than one-hundredth of one percent have been omitted)

Parts of Speech	Percent	Usage per 100 Million Words	Rank in English
Noun (proper)	100%	1,990	4,317

Source: compiled by the editor from several corpora; see credits.

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Expression: Iran

Expressions using "Iran": capital of Iran ♦ islamic Republic of Iran. Additional references.
Hyphenated Usage
	Beginning with "Iran": iran-arms, iran-backed, iran-based, iran-bound, iran-contra, Iran-india, Iran-iraq, Iran-Iraq War, Iran-iraq-turkey, iran-new, iran-saudi, Iran-uk, iran-united, Iran-us.
	Ending with "Iran": Iraq-iran.
Source: compiled by the editor from various references; see credits.

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Frequency of Internet Keywords: Iran

The following statistics estimate the number of searches per day across the major English-language search engines as identified by various trade publications. Hyperlinks lead to commercial use of the expression at Amazon.com.

Expression	Frequency per Day	Expression	Frequency per Day
iran	9,270	iran contra	147
iran tehran	3,506	iran iraq war	145
hotel of iran	2,515	music of iran	141
iran news	1,487	iran newspaper	139
iran sex	804	iran radio	130
iran mashhad	783	iran girl	121
iran tabriz	694	iran kerman	116
travel to iran	686	iran yazd	113
iran flag	662	iran picture	109
iran shiraz	465	bandarabbass iran	101
esfahan iran	375	the iran contra affair	101
ahwaz iran	318	arak iran	95
map of iran	240	shah of iran	93
iran ramsar	212	iran hostage crisis	93
iran karaj	197	iran contra scandal	92
iran tv	187	emrooz iran	89
abadan iran	184	history of iran	82
iran castillo	179	iran orumieh	81
babulsar iran	153	iran air	80
iran chat	148	iran kermanshah	74
Source: compiled by the editor from various references; see credits.

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Modern Translation: Iran

Language		Translations for "Iran"; alternative meanings/domain in parentheses.
Afrikaans		Iran (Persia), Persië (Persia). (various references)
Albanian		Iran. (various references)
Arabic		‏إيران بلاد الفرس. (various references)
Bulgarian		Иран. (various references)
Chinese		伊朗 . (various references)
Danish		Iran (Islamic Republic of Iran, The Islamic Republic of Iran), IR (cis-polyisoprene, Infra-red, Islamic Republic of Iran, verdigris), Den islamiske republik Iran (Islamic Republic of Iran, The Islamic Republic of Iran). (various references)
Dutch		Iran (Persia), Perzië (Persia). (various references)
Esperanto		Irano (Persia). (various references)
Finnish		Iranin islamilainen tasavalta (Islamic Republic of Iran), Iran (Islamic Republic of Iran), IR (Islamic Republic of Iran). (various references)
French		Iran (Islamic Republic of Iran, The Islamic Republic of Iran), Perse. (various references)
German		Iran (Iran (ir), Persia). (various references)
Greek		Ιράν (Persia). (various references)
Hebrew		ְירן. (various references)
Hungarian		Irán (Persia). (various references)
Indonesian		ajam (persia). (various references)
Irish		An IarÚin (Persia). (various references)
Italian		Iran (Islamic Republic of Iran, The Islamic Republic of Iran). (various references)
Japanese Kanji		イメージ調査 (99.999999999 percent., bad bounce, bad hop, ear protector, ear valve, earmark, earphone, earring, eleven, eleven nines, eraser, eruption, Ile de France, illegal, Illinois, illumination, illumination control, illusion, illustrated map, illustration, illustrator, image change, image survey, in, include, income, income gain, income tax, increment, incremental, incremental business, incubate, incubation, incubator, ink, inn, Iraq, iridium, irony, Iroquois, irrational, irregular, irregular bound, yearbook, year-round fashion). (various references)
Japanese Katakana		イラン . (various references)
Korean		이란 (Iranian). (various references)
Manx		Yn Eeraane. (various references)
Papiamen		Iran (Persia). (various references)
Pig Latin		iranay.(various references)
Portuguese		Irã (Persia). (various references)
Romanian		Iran (Persia). (various references)
Russian		Иран (Persia). (various references)
Samoan		Irani. (various references)
Serbo-Croatian		iran. (various references)
Spanish		Irán (you willgo). (various references)
Swedish		Iran (Islamic Republic of Iran). (various references)
Tagalog		Irán (Persia), Persya (Persia). (various references)
Thai		อิหร่าน, ประเทศอิหร่าน. (various references)
Turkish		Ýran (Persia), Íran (Persia). (various references)
Ukrainian		іран. (various references)
Source: compiled by the editor from various translation references.

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Derivations & Misspellings: Iran

Derivations
	Words containing "Iran": antiperspirant, antiperspirants, aspirant, aspirants, girandole, girandoles, multirange, omnirange, omniranges, pirana, piranas, piranha, piranhas, retirant, retirants, spirant, spirants. (additional references)
Misspellings
	"Iran" is suggested in spellcheckers for the following: Arnar, Birhan, Diran, Eirann, Erkan, Erzan, Hirwani, Iann, Idan, Ifano, Ihan, Ikram, Imren, Iordana, Irai, Irak, Iray, Iren, Irini, Irion, Irlam, irra, Irsa, Irun, Irwan, itan, itran, Itrian, Kirsan, Miran, Pirna, Riaan, Riano, Urran, Xidan, Zidan. (additional references)
Source: compiled by the editor, based on several corpora (additional references).

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Anagrams: Iran

Scrabble® Enable2K-Verified Anagrams
	Direct Anagrams: airn, rain, rani.
	Words within the letters "a-i-n-r"
	-1 letter: ain, air, ani, ran, ria, rin.
	-2 letters: ai, an, ar, in, na.
	Words containing the letters "a-i-n-r"
	+1 letter: airns, bairn, brain, cairn, dinar, drain, garni, grain, inarm, infra, invar, nadir, naira, naric, naris, noria, rains, rainy, ranid, ranis, ravin, rawin, riant, sarin, train.
	+2 letters: acinar, airing, airman, airmen, aldrin, aliner, antiar, anuria, anuric, arcing, arisen, arming, arnica, aroint, arshin, arsine, arsino, bairns, baring, binary, brains, brainy, cairns, cairny, carina, caring, carlin, carnie, crania, daring, denari, dinars, drains, durian, earing, fainer, farina, faring, firman, gainer, gradin, grains, grainy, gratin, haring, harmin, harpin, hernia, inaner, inarch, inarms, infare, inroad, instar, invars, inward, inwrap, jarina, larine, linear, margin, marina, marine, marlin, martin, nadirs, nailer, nairas, naiver, narial, narine, norias, nutria, oaring, onagri, ordain, origan, panier, parian, paring, pirana, qindar, qintar, rabbin, racing, radian, raging, rained, raisin, raking, rancid, ranids, rapine, raping, rapini, raring, rasing, ratine, rating, ration, ratlin, ravine, raving, ravins, rawins, raxing, raying, razing, reagin, regain, regina, remain, renail, retain, retina, rhinal, riband, rumina, santir, sarins, shairn, sprain, strain, taring, trains, trinal, unfair, unhair, urania, uranic, urinal, vainer, wanier, waring, zanier.
Source: compiled by the editor from various references; see credits. SCRABBLE® is a registered trademark. All intellectual property rights in and to the game are owned in the U.S.A and Canada by Hasbro Inc., and throughout the rest of the world by J.W. Spear & Sons Limited of Maidenhead, Berkshire, England, a subsidiary of Mattel Inc. Mattel and Spear are not affiliated with Hasbro.

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INDEX

1. Definition 2. Synonyms 3. Crosswords 4. Usage: Modern

5. Usage: Commercial 6. Images: Slideshow 7. Images: Photo Album 8. Quotations: Non-fiction

9. Quotations: Spoken 10. Quotations: Speeches 11. Usage Frequency 12. Expressions

13. Expressions: Internet 14. Translations: Modern 15. Abbreviations 16. Acronyms

17. Derivations 18. Anagrams 19. Bibliography

Copyright © Philip M. Parker, INSEAD. Terms of Use.