Copyright © Philip M. Parker, INSEAD. Terms of Use.
Definition: Commence |
CommenceVerb1. Take the first step or steps in carrying out an action: "We began working at dawn"; "Who will start?" "Get working as soon as the sun rises!"; "The first tourists began to arrive in Cambodia"; "He began early in the day". 2. Set in motion, cause to start; "The U.S. started a war in the Middle East"; "The Iraqis began hostilities"; "begin a new chapter in your life". 3. Get off the ground; "Who started this company?" "We embarked on an exciting enterprise"; "I start my day with a good breakfast"; "We began the new semester": "The afternoon session begins at 4 PM"; "The blood shed started when the partisans launched a surprise attack". Source: WordNet 1.7.1 Copyright © 2001 by Princeton University. All rights reserved. |
Date "commence" was first used: 13th century. (references) |
Note: Commence \Com*mence"\, intransitive verb [imperfect & past participle. Commenced; Commencing.]. (Websters 1913) |
| Domain | Definition |
Tips from 1870 | Usage: Commence, Begin. Some persons always commence, but never begin. The tendency toward pomp and parade in speech prompts many persons to avoid the use of our strong, rugged Anglo-Saxon words, and to substitute their high-sounding Latin equivalents, until, in time, the preferable native forms come to be regarded as commonplace and objectionable. American usage is more faulty than English in this regard. Use begin and beginning more, and commence and, commencement less. Source: Slips of Speech. |
Source: compiled by the editor from various references; see credits. | |
Synonyms: CommenceSynonyms: begin (v), embark on (v), get (v), lead off (v), set about (v), set out (v), start (v), start out (v), start up (v). (additional references) |
| Antonym: end (v). (additional references) |
| Context | Synonyms within Context (source: adapted from Roget's Thesaurus). |
Beginning | Verb: begin, start, commence; conceive, open, dawn, set in, take its rise, enter upon, enter; set out; (depart); embark in; incept. |
| Source: adapted from Roget's Thesaurus. | |
Crosswords: Commence |
| English words defined with "commence": auspicate ♦ Commenced, Commencing ♦ go to war ♦ inaugurate ♦ kick off ♦ Nonability ♦ Recommence ♦ take arms, take up arms, To break ground, To draw the curtain, To go to work, To levy a fine, To set about, To set up, To take arms ♦ Warrant to sue and defend. (references) |
| Specialty definitions using "commence": authorisation to transact business ♦ Begin, Break Ground ♦ Danse, down time ♦ expected approach time ♦ foreshaft sinking ♦ H-hour ♦ Inaugurate ♦ Lilly controller ♦ MACROBIAN, M-day ♦ period during which the subscription lists are open ♦ reverse dive ♦ spud in ♦ tunnel carriage. (references) |
| Non-English Usage: "Commence" is also a word in the following language with the English translation in parentheses. French (begins). |
| Domain | Usage | |
Screenplays | Commence anal probing. (The Kids in the Hall; writing credit: Dave Foley; Bruce McCulloch) Fun will now commence. (Star Trek: Voyager; writing credit: Douglas Day Stewart) It is only when I commence to carve on your vital organs that you will know you are having an experience. (Behind the Mask; writing credit: Jo Swerling) The yelling will cease and the killing will commence! (3rd Rock from the Sun; writing credit: Leslie Danon; Austin Reid) Then you know that shortly we can expect Zagon to commence and sustain an all-out attack. (This Island Earth; writing credit: Raymond F. Jones; Franklin Coen) | |
Movie/TV Titles | Que la fête commence... (1974) La Vie commence minuit (1967) L' Aventure commence demain (1946) La Vie commence en janvier (1980) | |
Source: compiled by the editor from various references; see credits. | ||
| Domain | Title | ||
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Music |
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Source: compiled by the editor from various references; see credits. | |||
| Thumbnail | Description & Credit | Thumbnail | Description & Credit |
 | "Crewmembers of the aircraft carrier USS Yorktown form Japanese characters reading 'Hello Japan' as she arrives in Far East waters to commence another tour with the U.S. Seventh Fleet. The carrier arrived at U.S. Fleet Activities, Yokosuka, Japan, March 3. Yorktown is commanded by Captain Louis H. Bauer, USN, and flies the flag of Rear Admiral Joseph D. Black, USN, Commander, Carrier Division 17." Photograph and caption were released by Commander Naval Forces, Japan, in March 1960. Aircraft on Yorktown's flight deck include 11 HSS-1; 4 AD-5W and 22 S2F. Transliteration of the Japanese Katakana characters is: "HaRo-NiHon". Credit: NAVY. |  | USS Lansdowne (DD-486), at right, and USS Hughes (DD-410), at left, take stations to commence the bombardment. Photographed from USS Louisville (CA-28). Credit: NAVY. |
 | Comment vous ne vous arretez pas ... Vous ne m'aimez plus. Je commence a en avoir assez, je ne fais plus que passer. Credit: Library of Congress. |  | Coming! Aitken & Watson Mesmeric Co. will commence a series of entertainments in mesmerism! to be held in G.A.R. Hall, Attleboro, Mass. on Tuesday & Wednesday evenings, April 28 & 29, 1885. Credit: Library of Congress. |
Source: pictures compiled by the editor from various references; see picture credits. | |||
| Author | Quotation |
Benjamin Disraeli | It has been discovered that the best way to insure implicit obedience is to commence tyranny in the nursery. |
George Bernard Shaw. | The best reformers the world has ever seen are those who commence on themselves. |
John Adams | The moment the idea is admitted into society that property is not as sacred as the laws of God . . . anarchy and tyranny commence. |
Thomas Jefferson | Were I to commence my administration again, . . . the first question I would ask respecting a candidate would be, "Does he use ardent spirits?" |
Source: compiled by the editor from various references. | |
| Author | Date | Quotation |
Treaty of Versailles | 1919 | As regards negotiable instruments, the period of three months provided under paragraph (a) shall commence as from the date on which any exceptional regulations applied in the territories of the interested Power with regard to negotiable instruments shall have definitely ceased to have force. (reference) |
Source: compiled by the editor from various references. | ||
| Title | Author | Quote |
Les Miserables | Hugo, Victor | We might almost say that affinities commence with the letters of the alphabet. |
Source: compiled by the editor from various references. | ||
| Subject | Topic | Quote |
Business | Also, as many of the current aerospace projects are winding down, there may be gaps of a few years until potential new production projects commence (i.e., F-X, and KTX-2 Trainer programs). (references) | |
The first club to commence installation was the famous "River" club, which recently invested $750,000 in Sensormatic systems (32 video Domo cameras with 360-degree color imaging and audio connected to police headquarters). (references) | ||
Initially, leasing companies were allowed to commence their business with a capital base of Rs. 50 million, which was later revised to Rs. 100 million in 1992. Only recently the limit had been raised to Rs. 200 million and the existing leasing companies were required to enhance their capital base by November 1999. Presently only 5 leasing companies out of a total of 33 are eligible under the new regulation. (references) | ||
Civil Liberties | India | The state of Uttar Pradesh passed the Religious Buildings and Places Act during the state assembly budget session of March-May 2000. The act requires a state government-endorsed permit before construction of any religious building may commence in the state. (references) |
Economic History | Eritrea | Commercial activity is scheduled to commence in August. (references) |
South Africa | A public company may not commence operations until receipt of the Registrar's certification. (references) | |
Human Rights | Trinidad and Tobago | All criminal proceedings commence with the filing of a complaint in the summary court. (references) |
Zambia | There was some progress in holding trials; in past years, some defendants had waited as long as 10 years for their trials to commence. (references) | |
Political Economy | BULGARIA | In June 1999, the government satisfied its commitment to privatize or commence liquidation of a group of 41 of the largest loss-making SOEs, including the national airline. (references) |
Political Rights | Uganda | The law permits election campaigns to commence after the Electoral Commission (EC) has approved a candidate's nomination. (references) |
Lexicography | Devil's Dictionary | MACROBIAN, n. One forgotten of the gods and living to a great age. History is abundantly supplied with examples, from Methuselah to Old Parr, but some notable instances of longevity are less well known. A Calabrian peasant named Coloni, born in 1753, lived so long that he had what he considered a glimpse of the dawn of universal peace. Scanavius relates that he knew an archbishop who was so old that he could remember a time when he did not deserve hanging. In 1566 a linen draper of Bristol, England, declared that he had lived five hundred years, and that in all that time he had never told a lie. There are instances of longevity (macrobiosis) in our own country. Senator Chauncey Depew is old enough to know better. The editor of The American, a newspaper in New York City, has a memory that goes back to the time when he was a rascal, but not to the fact. The President of the United States was born so long ago that many of the friends of his youth have risen to high political and military preferment without the assistance of personal merit. The verses following were written by a macrobian: When I was young the world was fair And amiable and sunny. A brightness was in all the air, In all the waters, honey. The jokes were fine and funny, The statesmen honest in their views, And in their lives, as well, And when you heard a bit of news 'Twas true enough to tell. Men were not ranting, shouting, reeking, Nor women "generally speaking." The Summer then was long indeed: It lasted one whole season! The sparkling Winter gave no heed When ordered by Unreason To bring the early peas on. Now, where the dickens is the sense In calling that a year Which does no more than just commence Before the end is near? When I was young the year extended From month to month until it ended. I know not why the world has changed To something dark and dreary, And everything is now arranged To make a fellow weary. The Weather Man -- I fear he Has much to do with it, for, sure, The air is not the same: It chokes you when it is impure, When pure it makes you lame. With windows closed you are asthmatic; Open, neuralgic or sciatic. Well, I suppose this new regime Of dun degeneration Seems eviler than it would seem To a better observation, And has for compensation Some blessings in a deep disguise Which mortal sight has failed To pierce, although to angels' eyes They're visible unveiled. If Age is such a boon, good land! He's costumed by a master hand! Venable Strigg |
Source: compiled by the editor from ICON Group International, Inc.; see credits. | ||
| Speaker | Term | Phrase(s) |
George Washington | 1789-1797 | You will join with me, I trust, in thinking that there are none under the influence of which the proceedings of a new and free government can more auspiciously commence. |
James Madison | 1809-1817 | To render the justice of the war on our part the more conspicuous, the reluctance to commence it was followed by the earliest and strongest manifestations of a disposition to arrest its progress. |
James Monroe | 1817-1825 | Never did a government commence under auspices so favorable, nor ever was success so complete. |
John Quincy Adams | 1825-1829 | The preparation and transmission to the marshals of those instructions required more time than was then allowed between the passage of the law and the day when the enumeration was to commence. |
Andrew Jackson | 1829-1837 | However proper the limitation may be in relation to private citizens, it would seem that it ought not to commence running in favor of public officers until they go out of office. |
Source: compiled by the editor from various references. | ||
| "Commence" is generally used as a lexical verb (infinitive) -- approximately 75.90% of the time. "Commence" is used about 444 times out of a sample of 100 million words spoken or written in English. Its rank is based on over 700,000 words used in the English language. Some parts-of-speech are not covered due to the samples used by the British National Corpus. (note: percents less than one-hundredth of one percent have been omitted) |
| Parts of Speech | Percent | Usage per 100 Million Words | Rank in English |
| Lexical Verb (infinitive) | 75.9% | 337 | 15,616 |
| Lexical Verb (base form) | 24.1% | 107 | 31,463 |
| Total | 100.00% | 444 | N/A |
Source: compiled by the editor from several corpora; see credits.
Expressions using "commence": commence firing! ♦ commence operations. Additional references. | |
| Hypenated Usage | |
Ending with "commence": re-commence. | |
| Source: compiled by the editor from various references; see credits. | |
| The following statistics estimate the number of searches per day across the major English-language search engines as identified by various trade publications. Hyperlinks lead to commercial use of the expression at Amazon.com. |
| Expression | Frequency per Day |
commence | 17 |
commence pres.depaul.edu | 5 |
e commence | 3 |
commence la là mer où | 3 |
bank commence | 3 |
commence l la mer o | 2 |
| Source: compiled by the editor from various references; see credits. | |
| Language | Translations for "commence"; alternative meanings/domain in parentheses. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Afrikaans | instel (begin, start), begin (begin, beginning, commencement, does start, start). (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Albanian | filloj (begin, come, develop, embark, enter, fall into, fall on, fall to, get, get down, initiate, lead off, open, originate, rise, set about, set in, set to, set up, start, strike up). (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Arabic | نال شهادة جامعية, إستهل (begin, initialize, institute, launch, lead off, open, preface, set, start, strike up), شرع (begin, fall to, legislate, proceed, set about, set upon, start, tackle, undertake), بدأ (begin, begin on smth., fall to, incept, initialize, initiate, institute, launch, lead, lead off, proceed, set, set about, set in, start, start off, tackle, take, take in, tee). (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Bulgarian | слагам начало на (originate, set on foot, start, start off), започвам (begin, come in, enter, enter on, fall to, get under way, handsel, initiate, institute, jump off, kick off, lead, lead off, open, preface, premise, roll, set in, set out on, set up, settle in, start off, start up, take off, tee off, teethe, trigger). (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Catalan | començar (begin, start). (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Chinese | 著手 , 开始 (Began, begin, Begun, Commenced, Commencement, Commencing, inaugurate, Inaugurated, Inaugurating, inception, start, started, starting, start-off). (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Czech | zahájit (begin, go off, handsel, inaugurate, Initialize, initiate, introduce, launch, lead off, preface, start), zaèít (begin, embark on, fall to, give a start, go, go off, inaugurate, initiate, kick off, open, originate, start, take up), nastoupit (board, fall in, get in, get on, light upon, re-enter, succeed). (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Danish | begynde (begin, start). (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Dutch | beginnen (begin, come on, set in, start), aanvangen (begin, start), aanbinden (begin, fasten, moor, start, tie, tie on). (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Esperanto | komenciĝi (begin, start), komenci (begin, start). (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Faeroese | verða byrjaður (begin, start), byrja (begin, start). (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Farsi | اغازکردن (Begin, Birth, Inaugurate, Incept, Inchoate, Initial, Set, Sparkplug), شروع کردن (Begin, Embark, Launch, Start). (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Finnish | aloittaa (begin, begin start, initiate, lead, lead off, set up, start). (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
French | commencer (come on). (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Frisian | oanpakke (approach, assault, begin, deal with, start, tackle, violate), oangean (begin, burn, catch, flash on, start, strike, take fire), oanfange (begin, start), oanbrekke (begin, start), begjinne (begin, start). (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
German | beginnen (begin, do, enterprise, inaugurate, initiate, kick off, open, plan, scheme, set about, start, start off, start out, to begin (began, to commence, to initiate, to set in, to start, to start (for)). (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Greek | αρχίζω (begin, come on, go on, start). (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Hawaiian | filloj (begin, start). (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Hebrew | ל"תחיל (begin, break ground, launch, open), ל"חל (begin, initiate, start). (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Hungarian | megkezd (began, begun, start, to begin, to enter on, to incept, to inchoate, to initiate, to start on, to throw off), kezdõdik (begin, begin/start, start), kezd (began, begin, begun, set in, start, to begin, to commence, to set in, to take the water, to throw off, to turn it on), elkezd (inchoate, to commence, to inchoate, to initiate, to put in hand, to set up, to start), belekezd (fall to, lead off, strike up, to engage in, to enter into, to incept, to inchoate, to strike up), belefog (go away, lead off, -taken, to pipe up, to undertake, -took, undertake). (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Icelandic | byrja (begin, start). (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Indonesian | mulai (begin), mengawali (begin, startup), memulai (begin, start, wring), berawal (begin, start). (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Irish | tosaigh (begin, start), tionscain (begin, institute; begin, start). (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Italian | cominciare (begin, beginning, enter, open, proceed, start). (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Japanese Kanji | 仕掛ける (to challenge, to commence, to lay, to set, to wage). (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Japanese Katakana | しかける (to challenge, to commence, to lay, to set, to wage). (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Korean | 시작하십시" (begin). (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Manx | toshiaghey (begin, initiate, lead off, no entry, set forth, set in, start, starting), goaill toshiaght er (enter on, go ahead, handsel), goaill toshiaght (begin, break out, breed, come up, dawn, originate, set to, start). (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Norwegian | begynne (begin, start). (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Papiamen | cuminsá (begin, start), kuminsá (begin, start), inisiá (begin, start). (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Pig Latin | ommencecay zaczynać. (various references) começar (begin, come on, get around, go, kick off, lead off, open, originate, set in, set off, set to, start, strike up, tee off), iniciar (begin, handsel, induct, initiate, introduce, launch, lead off, open, originate, set off, set to, start, strike up). (various references) începe (begin, develop, enter upon, go into the army, go on, initiate, it starts, lead off, lead out, open, preface, set, set forth, set off, start). (various references) начинать (began, begin, begun, enter upon, inaugurate, incept, kick off, launch, lead off, preface, prelude, set to, start, start off, starts, strike up). (various references) tòisich (begin, commence : tòisich air, start). (various references) započeti (begin, fire away, initiate, preface, start, start off, upstart), početi (begin, lead off, open, set in, set on, start). (various references) comenzar (begin, come on, dawn, enter on, inchoate, initiate, institute, kick off, launch, lead off, light, open, open up, start, start up, starting, take to, take up, turn to), empezar (begin, break, broach, come on, enter on, get, inchoate, initiate, institute, kick off, launch, lead off, open, open up, set in, start, start off, start the ball rolling, take up), principiar (begin, start), enteblar (begin, start), decentar (begin, cut into, start). (various references) bigin (begin, start). (various references) börja (begin, come on, come up, enter upon, fall to, go ahead, initiate, introduce, kick off, lead off, open, set in, settle down to, start). (various references) yüksek lisans almak, doktora derecesi almak, dava açmak (bring a lawsuit, bring an action against, call, claim, complain, enter an action, file a claim, go to law, indict, litigate, make a plea, plead, prefer charges, present a case, press a charge, proceed, process, prosecute, Sue, take action), baxlamak (begin, start), başlatmak (begin, get going, give a start, induct, initiate, institute, launch, lead away, lead off, open, open the ball, set off, start, stir up, trigger), başlamak (begin, come on, cut along, enter into, enter on, enter upon, fall into, fall to, get, get a move on, get going, get to, go, go off, inaugurate, introduce, kick off, knuckle down to, launch, launch out, launch out into, lay down, open, set about, set in, set out, set to, start, start in, start off, strike in, strike up, turn to). (various references) одержувати учений ступінь, починатися (dawn, get going, start, teethe), починати (begin, break, embark, enter into, enter on, enter upon, initiate, institute, launch, lead off, open, prelude, quicken, set off, start, strike up, tee off, tee up, undertake). (various references) dechrau (begin, beginning, start). (various references) chunpahal (begin, start), chunbesik (begin, start), kaahsik (begin, start). (various references) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Language | Period | Translations |
| Latin | 500 BCE-Modern | coepi, coepimus, coepit, coepitque, com-, incipio, ineo. (various references) |
| Source: compiled by the editor from various references. | ||
Derivations | |
Words beginning with "commence": commenced, commencement, commencements, commencer, commencers, commences. (additional references) | |
Words ending with "commence": recommence. (additional references) | |
Words containing "commence": recommenced, recommencement, recommencements, recommences. (additional references) | |
| |
"Commence" is suggested in spellcheckers for the following: Casmance, cmmence, Comanecj, comence, comencer, comenen, comense, comince, Cominco, commencs, commense, compence, compense, congence, Cromemco, cumene, cumonck, Fomenko. (additional references) | |
| Source: compiled by the editor, based on several corpora (additional references). | |
| # of Phoneme Matches | Pronunciation | Word(s) rhyming with "commence" (pronounced kume"ns) |
| 4 | -m e" n s | immense. |
| 3 | -e" n s | commonsense, condense, defence, defense, dense, dispense, expense, fence, hence, incense, intense, nondefense, offense, pence, pretense, sense, Spence, suspense, tense, thence, whence. |
Source: compiled by the editor (additional references); see credits. | ||
Scrabble® Enable2K-Verified Anagrams | |
| Words within the letters "c-c-e-e-m-m-n-o" | |
-4 letters: come, cone, meme, memo, meno, mome, neem, nome, omen, once. | |
-5 letters: cee, con, eme, eon, mem, men, moc, mom, mon, nee, nom, one. | |
| Words containing the letters "c-c-e-e-m-m-n-o" | |
+1 letter: commenced, commencer, commences. | |
+2 letters: commencers, recommence. | |
+3 letters: recommenced, recommences. | |
+4 letters: commencement, communicatee, recommencing. | |
+5 letters: commencements, communicatees, excommunicate. | |
| Source: compiled by the editor from various references; see credits. SCRABBLE® is a registered trademark. All intellectual property rights in and to the game are owned in the U.S.A and Canada by Hasbro Inc., and throughout the rest of the world by J.W. Spear & Sons Limited of Maidenhead, Berkshire, England, a subsidiary of Mattel Inc. Mattel and Spear are not affiliated with Hasbro. | |
| 1. Definition 2. Synonyms 3. Crosswords 4. Usage: Modern | 5. Usage: Commercial 6. Images: Slideshow 7. Images: Photo Album 8. Quotations: Familiar | 9. Quotations: Historic 10. Quotations: Fiction 11. Quotations: Non-fiction 12. Quotations: Speeches | 13. Usage Frequency 14. Expressions 15. Expressions: Internet 16. Translations: Modern | 17. Translations: Ancient 18. Derivations 19. Rhymes 20. Anagrams | 21. Bibliography |
Copyright © Philip M. Parker, INSEAD. Terms of Use.
