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India

Specialty Definition: India

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Specialty Definition: British Raj

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

This article is part of the History of South Asia series.

Indus Valley civilization

Vedic civilization

Middle kingdoms of India

Islamic Empires in India

Mogul Era

Company rule in India

British Raj

Indian independence movement

The British Raj is an informal term for the period of British rule of the Indian subcontinent, or present-day India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. It lasted from 1858, when company rule was transferred to the Crown, until 1947, when the independence of India and Pakistan was granted.

Sepoy Rebellion, 1857-1859

Main article: Indian Mutiny

On May 10, 1857, Indian soldiers of the British Indian Army, drawn mostly from Muslim units from Bengal, mutinied in Meerut, a cantonment eighty kilometers northeast of Delhi. The rebels marched to Delhi to offer their services to the Mughal emperor, and soon much of north and central India was plunged into a year-long insurrection against the British.

The uprising, which seriously threatened British rule in India, has been called many names by historians, including the Sepoy Rebellion, the Great Mutiny, and the Revolt of 1857; many people in South Asia, however, prefer to call it India's first war of independence. Undoubtedly, it was the culmination of mounting Indian resentment toward British economic and social policies over many decades. Until the rebellion, the British had succeeded in suppressing numerous riots and "tribal" wars or in accommodating them through concessions, but two events triggered the violent explosion of wrath in 1857.

First, was the annexation in 1856 of Oudh, a wealthy princely state that generated huge revenue and represented a vestige of Mughal authority. The second was the British blunder in using cartridges for the Lee-Enfield rifle that were allegedly greased with animal fat, which was offensive to the religious beliefs of Muslim and Hindu sepoys. The rebellion soon engulfed much of North India, including Oudh and various areas once under the control of Maratha princes. Isolated mutinies also occurred at military posts in the center of the subcontinent. Initially, the rebels, although divided and uncoordinated, gained the upper hand, while the unprepared British were terrified, and even paralyzed, without replacements for the casualties. The civil war inflicted havoc on both Indians and British as each vented its fury on the other; each community suffered humiliation and triumph in battle as well, although the final outcome was victory for the British. The last major sepoy rebels surrendered on June 21, 1858, at Gwalior (Madhya Pradesh), one of the principal centers of the revolt. A final battle was fought at Sirwa Pass on May 21, 1859, and the defeated rebels fled into Nepal.

The spontaneous and widespread rebellion later fired the imagination of the nationalists who would debate the most effective method of protest against British rule. For them, the rebellion represented the first Indian attempt at gaining independence. This interpretation, however, is open to serious question.

Post-Rebellion Developments

The civil war was a major turning point in the history of modern India. In May 1858, the British exiled Emperor Bahadur Shah II (r. 1837-1857) to Burma, thus formally liquidating the Mughal Empire. At the same time, they abolished the British East India Company and replaced it with direct rule under the British Crown. In proclaiming the new direct-rule policy to "the Princes, Chiefs, and Peoples of India," Queen Victoria (who was given the title Empress of India in 1877) promised equal treatment under British law, but Indian mistrust of British rule had become a legacy of the 1857 rebellion.

Many existing economic and revenue policies remained virtually unchanged in the post-1857 period, but several administrative modifications were introduced, beginning with the creation in London of a cabinet post, the Secretary of State for India. The governor-general (called viceroy when acting as the direct representative of the British Crown), headquartered in Calcutta, ran the administration in India, assisted by executive and legislative councils. Beneath the governor-general were the provincial governors, who held power over the district officials, who formed the lower rungs of the Indian Civil Service. For decades the Indian Civil Service was the exclusive preserve of the British-born, as were the superior ranks in such other professions as law and medicine. The British administrators were imbued with a sense of duty in ruling India and were rewarded with good salaries, high status, and opportunities for promotion. Not until the 1910s did the British reluctantly permit a few Indians into their cadre as the number of English-educated Indians rose steadily.

The Viceroy of India announced in 1858 that the government would honor former treaties with princely states and renounced the "doctrine of lapse," whereby the East India Company had annexed territories of rulers who died without male heirs. About 40 percent of Indian territory and between 20 and 25 percent of the population remained under the control of 562 princes notable for their religious (Islamic, Sikh, Hindu, and other) and ethnic diversity. Their propensity for pomp and ceremony became proverbial, while their domains, varying in size and wealth, lagged behind sociopolitical transformations that took place elsewhere in British-controlled India.

A more thorough reorganization was effected in the constitution of army and government finances. Shocked by the extent of solidarity among Indian soldiers during the rebellion, the government separated the army into the three presidencies.

British attitudes toward Indians shifted from relative openness to insularity and xenophobia, even against those with comparable background and achievement as well as loyalty. British families and their servants lived in cantonments at a distance from Indian settlements. Private clubs where the British gathered for social interaction became symbols of exclusivity and snobbery that refused to disappear decades after the British had left India. In 1883 the government of India attempted to remove race barriers in criminal jurisdictions by introducing a bill empowering Indian judges to adjudicate offenses committed by Europeans. Public protests and editorials in the British press, however, forced the viceroy, George Robinson, Marquis of Ripon (who served from 1880 to 1884), to capitulate and modify the bill drastically. The Bengali Hindu intelligentsia learned a valuable political lesson from this "white mutiny": the effectiveness of well-orchestrated agitation through demonstrations in the streets and publicity in the media when seeking redress for real and imagined grievances.

Beginnings of Self-Government

In the late 1800s, the first steps were taken toward self-government in British India with the appointment of Indian councilors to advise the British viceroy and the establishment of provincial councils with Indian members; the British subsequently widened participation in legislative councils.

The Government of India Act of 1909 - also known as the Morley-Minto Reforms (John Morley was the secretary of state for India, and Gilbert Elliot, fourth earl of Minto, was viceroy)-- gave Indians limited roles in the central and provincial legislatures, known as legislative councils. Indians had previously been appointed to legislative councils, but after the reforms some were elected to them. At the center, the majority of council members continued to be government-appointed officials, and the viceroy was in no way responsible to the legislature. At the provincial level, the elected members, together with unofficial appointees, outnumbered the appointed officials, but responsibility of the governor to the legislature was not contemplated. Morley made it clear in introducing the legislation to the British Parliament that parliamentary self-government was not the goal of the British government.

The Morley-Minto Reforms were a milestone. Step by step, the elective principle was introduced for membership in Indian legislative councils. The "electorate" was limited, however, to a small group of upper-class Indians. These elected members increasingly became an "opposition" to the "official government." Communal electorates were later extended to other communities and made a political factor of the Indian tendency toward group identification through religion. The practice created certain vital questions for all concerned. The intentions of the British were questioned. How humanitarian was their concern for the minorities? Were separate electorates a manifestation of "divide and rule"?

For Muslims it was important both to gain a place in all - India politics and to retain their Muslim identity, objectives that required varying responses according to circumstances, as the example of Muhammed Ali Jinnah illustrates. Jinnah, who was born in 1876, studied law in England and began his career as an enthusiastic liberal in Congress on returning to India. In 1913 he joined the Muslim League, which had been shocked by the 1911 annulment of the partition of Bengal into cooperating with Congress to make demands on the British. Jinnah continued his membership in Congress until 1919. During this dual membership period, he was described by a leading Congress spokesperson as the "ambassador of Hindu-Muslim unity."

India's important contributions to the efforts of the British Empire in World War I stimulated further demands by Indians and further response from the British. The Congress Party and the Muslim League met in joint session in December 1916. Under the leadership of Jinnah and Pandit Motilal Nehru (father of Jawalharlal Nehru), unity was preached and a proposal for constitutional reform was made that included the concept of separate electorates. The resulting Congress-Muslim League Pact (often referred to as the Lucknow Pact) was a sincere effort to compromise. Congress accepted the separate electorates demanded by the Muslim League, and the Muslim League joined with Congress in demanding self-government. The pact was expected to lead to permanent and constitutional united action.

In August 1917, the British government formally announced a policy of "increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration and the gradual development of self-governing institutions with a view to the progressive realization of responsible government in India as an integral part of the British Empire." Constitutional reforms were embodied in the Government of India Act of 1919 - also known as the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (Edwin Samuel Montagu was Britain's secretary of state for India; the Marquess of Chelmsford was viceroy). These reforms represented the maximum concessions the British were prepared to make at that time. The franchise was extended, and increased authority was given to central and provincial legislative councils, but the viceroy remained responsible only to London.

The changes at the provincial level were significant, as the provincial legislative councils contained a considerable majority of elected members. In a system called "dyarchy," the nation-building departments of government - agriculture, education, public works, and the like - were placed under ministers who were individually responsible to the legislature. The departments that made up the "steel frame" of British rule - finance, revenue, and home affairs - were retained by executive councillors who were often, but not always, British and who were responsible to the governor.

The 1919 reforms did not satisfy political demands in India. The British repressed opposition, and restrictions on the press and on movement were reenacted. An apparently unwitting example of violation of rules against the gathering of people led to the massacre at Jalianwala Bagh in Amritsar in April 1919. This tragedy galvanized such political leaders as Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964) and Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (1869-1948) and the masses who followed them to press for further action.

The Allies' post-World War I peace settlement with Turkey provided an additional stimulus to the grievances of the Muslims, who feared that one goal of the Allies was to end the caliphate of the Ottoman sultan. After the end of the Mughal Empire, the Ottoman caliph had become the symbol of Islamic authority and unity to Indian Sunni Muslims. A pan-Islamic movement, known as the Khilafat Movement, spread in India. It was a mass repudiation of Muslim loyalty to British rule and thus legitimated Muslim participation in the Indian nationalist movement. The leaders of the Khilafat Movement used Islamic symbols to unite the diverse but assertive Muslim community on an all-India basis and bargain with both Congress leaders and the British for recognition of minority rights and political concessions.

Muslim leaders from the Deoband and Aligarh movements joined Gandhi in mobilizing the masses for the 1920 and 1921 demonstrations of civil disobedience and noncooperation in response to the massacre at Amritsar. At the same time, Gandhi endorsed the Khilafat Movement, thereby placing many Hindus behind what had been solely a Muslim demand.

Despite impressive achievements, however, the Khilafat Movement failed. Turkey rejected the caliphate and became a secular state. Furthermore, the religious, mass-based aspects of the movement alienated such Western-oriented constitutional politicians as Jinnah, who resigned from Congress. Other Muslims also were uncomfortable with Gandhi's leadership. The British historian Sir Percival Spear wrote that "a mass appeal in his [Gandhi's] hands could not be other than a Hindu one. He could transcend caste but not community. The [Hindu] devices he used went sour in the mouths of Muslims." In the final analysis, the movement failed to lay a lasting foundation of Indian unity and served only to aggravate Hindu-Muslim differences among masses that were being politicized. Indeed, as India moved closer to the self-government implied in the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms, rivalry over what might be called the spoils of independence sharpened the differences between the communities.

The political picture in India was not at all clear when the mandated decennial review of the Government of India Act of 1919 became due in 1929. Prospects of further constitutional reforms spurred greater agitation and a frenzy of demands from different groups. The commission in charge of the review was headed by Sir John Simon, who recommended further constitutional change, but it was not until 1935 that a new Government of India Act was passed. Three consecutive roundtable conferences were held in London in 1930, 1931, and 1932, at which a wide variety of interests from India were represented. The major disagreement concerned the continuation of separate electorates, which Gandhi and Congress strongly opposed. As a result, the decision was forced on the British government. Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald issued his "communal award," which continued the system of separate electorates at both the central and the provincial level.

The principal result of the act was "provincial autonomy." The dyarchical system was discontinued, and all subjects were placed under ministers who were individually and collectively responsible to the former legislative councils, which were renamed legislative assemblies. (In a few provinces, including Bengal, a bicameral system was established; the upper house continued to be called a legislative council.) Almost all assembly members were elected, with the exception of some special and otherwise unrepresented groups. After the elections, provincial chief ministers and cabinets took office, although the governors had limited "emergency powers." Sindh was separated from Bombay and became a province. The 1919 reforms had earlier been introduced in the North-West Frontier Province. Balochistan, however, retained special status; it had no legislature and was governed by an "agent general to the governor general." At the center, the act essentially provided for the establishment of dyarchy, but it also provided for a federal system that included the princes. The princes refused to join a system that might force them to accept decisions made by elected politicians. Thus, the full provisions of the 1935 act did not come into force at the center.

Related articles

• British Empire
• Imperialism in Asia

References

• LOC Country Studies on India and Pakistan

  Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "British Raj."

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Constitution of India

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

The Constitution of India was passed by the Constituent Assembly on November 26, 1949 and is fully applicable since January 26, 1950, which is celebrated as Republic Day in India. The draft constitution was prepared by a 8 person committee, led by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar.

The Constitution of India is modelled on the British Constitution, with the major exception that it is a written constitution. A review of the constitution is taken very seriously, and needs at least two-thirds of the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha passing it.

Preamble

We, the people of India, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic Republic and to secure to all its citizens : JUSTICE, social, economic and political; LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship; EQUALITY of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them all FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the Nation; In our consituent assembly this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949, do hereby adopt, enact and give to ourselves this constitution.

Fundamental Rights

Right to Equality

Right to Freedom

Right against Exploitation

Right to Freedom of Religion

Cultural and Educational Right

Right to Constitutional Remedies

Fundamental Duties

To abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National Flag and the National Anthem;

To cherish and follow the noble ideas which inspired our national struggle for freedom;

To uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India;

To defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so;

To promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India transending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional diversities;to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women;

To value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;

To protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life, and to have compassion for living creatures;

To develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of enquiry and reform;

To safeguard public property and to abjure violence;

To strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity, so that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour and achievement.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Constitution of India."

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Culture of India

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

The culture of India is one of the oldest cultures known to humanity.

Cultural policy

The cultural policy of the Government of India has three major objectives:

• Preserving the cultural heritage of India,
• inculcating Indian art consciousness amongst Indians and
• promoting high standards in creative and performing arts.

History

The most endearing aspects of Indian art and architecture prior to colonization has been the strong impact of folk idioms and folk art on courtly art. Although folk art received little encouragement during the period of colonization, independence brought forward a renewed interest in folk paintings.

Traditions

Indians join their hands (palms together) and bow down in front of the other person, and say Namaste, Namaskar, or Pranam. This signifies reverent salutations.

Festivals in India are characterized by colour, gaiety, enthusiasm, prayers and rituals. Diwali, the popular festival of Indians, celebrates the return of Lord Rama and Sita from exile.

Indian fashion

Indian fashion is rich in tradition, vibrant in colors and truly beautiful. Bold colors and metallics created by the inventive drapes of these textiles catches the imagination like no other contemporary clothing.

Indian dress designers combine Western trends with Indian touch, creating garments which are truly outstanding.

Drama and theatre

Indian drama and theatre is perhaps as old as its music and dance. The tradition of folk theatre is alive in nearly all the linguistic regions of the country. In addition, there is a rich tradition of puppet theatre in rural India.

Dance

India offers a number of classical dance forms, each of which can be traced to different parts of the country. Each form represents the culture and ethos of a particular region or a group of people

There are many types of dance in India, from those which are deeply religious in content to those which are danced on more trivial happy occasions.

Painting

Indian painting is an old tradition, with ancient texts outlining theories of color and anecdotal accounts suggesting that it was common for households to paint their doorways or indoor rooms where guests resided.

Cave paintings from Ajanta, Bagh and Sittanvasal and temple paintings testify to a love of naturalism.

Recreation and sports

In the area of recreation and sports India had evolved a number of games. One would be surprised to know today that games like, Chess, Snakes and Ladders, Playing cards, Polo, the martial arts of Judo and Karate had originated as a sport in India and it was from here that these games were transmitted to foreign countries, where they were further modernized.

• See also: Music of India

External links

• Festivals in India
• Indian Fashion
• Indian Fashion designers
• Indian Drama
• Indian Art
• Indian Paintings
• Indian Dances
• Sports in India

  Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Culture of India."

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History of India

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Vedic India

Main article: History of South Asia

The people of India have had a continuous recorded civilization since 7000 BC, traced to the Mehrgarh complex of the Indus Tradition in northwest India. This reached its most prosperous phase in 2600 BC in the valleys of the Sarasvati and Sindh rivers as an urban culture based on commerce and sustained by agricultural trade. This civilization declined between the 19th and 17th century BC, probably due to ecological changes. See: Indus Valley civilization

Recent data, substantiated by satellite imagery and oceanographic studies, suggests that the civilisation flourished even as far back as 9000 BC. Prior to this, there is the Rock art tradition that dates to 40 or 50,000 years ago.

Rise of Jainism and Buddhism

• Gautama Buddha (563-483 B.C.)
• Mahaveera (599 B.C.)

Mauryan Period

Chandragupta Maruya founded Mauryan dynasty with the help of Chanakya or Kautilya the author of ancient text Arthashastra. Ashoka is one of the greatest ruler in this dynasty, he embraced and preached Buddhism after the bloody battle of Kalinga. The mighty empire of the Mauryans began to decline after the death of Ashoka.

The Classical Age

The political map of ancient and medieval India was made up of myriad kingdoms with fluctuating boundaries. In the 4th and 5th centuries, northern India was unified under the Gupta Dynasty. During this period, known as India's Golden Age, Hindu culture, science and political administration reached new heights.

Pallavas

4th century to 9th century in Kanchi

Chalukya Empire

6th century to 12th century

Chola Empire

9th century to 13th century

Islam spread across the subcontinent over a period of 500 years. In the 10th and 11th centuries, Turks and Afghans invaded India and established sultanates in Delhi. In the early 16th century, descendants of Genghis Khan swept across the Khyber Pass and established the Mughal (Mogul) Dynasty, which lasted for 200 years. From the 11th to the 15th centuries, southern India was dominated by Hindu Chola and Vijayanagar Dynasties. During this time, the two systems — the prevailing Hindu and Muslim — mingled, leaving lasting cultural influences on each other.

Karnataka Empire

Also known as the Vijayanagar Empire, it was founded in 1336 by brothers Harihara and Bukka. It suffered a major defeat in 1565 but continued for another century or so in an attenuated form.

Muslim Invasion

Mughal Dynasty

British Colonial Period

Main article: British Raj.

The first British outpost in South Asia was established in 1619 at Surat on the northwestern coast. Later in the century, the British East India Company opened permanent trading stations at Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta, each under the protection of native rulers.

The British expanded their influence from these footholds until, by the 1850s, they controlled most of India, which included Pakistan and Bangladesh. In 1857, a rebellion in north India led by mutinous Indian soldiers caused the British Parliament to transfer all political power from the East India Company to the Crown. Great Britain began administering most of India directly, while controlling the rest through treaties with local rulers.

In the late 1800s, the first steps were taken toward self-government in "British India" with the appointment of Indian councilors to advise the British viceroy and the establishment of provincial councils with Indian members; the British subsequently widened participation in legislative councils. Beginning in 1920, Indian leader Mohandas K. Gandhi (also known as Mahatma Gandhi, a title similar to the Christian concept of sainthood) transformed the Indian National Congress party into a mass movement to campaign against British colonial rule. The movement eventually succeeded in bringing about independence by means of parliamentary speech, nonviolent resistance and noncooperation.

1947 Onwards

On August 15, 1947, India became a dominion within the Commonwealth of Nations, under the leadership of Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru. Violent clashes between Hindus and Muslims led to the partition of British India, creating East and West Pakistan, where there were Muslim majorities. The Indian Constituent Assembly adopted India's constitution on November 26, 1949. [1] India became a secular republic within the Commonwealth after promulgating its constitution on January 26, 1950.

After independence, the Congress Party, the party of Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, ruled India under the influence first of Nehru and then his daughter Indira Gandhi and grandson Rajiv Gandhi, with the exception of two brief periods in the 1970s and 1980s.

Prime Minister Nehru governed the nation until his death in 1964. He was succeeded by Lal Bahadur Shastri, who also died in office. In 1966, power passed to Nehru's daughter, Indira Gandhi, who served as Prime Minister from 1966 to 1977. In 1975, beset with deepening political and economic problems, Ms. Gandhi declared a state of emergency and suspended many civil liberties. Seeking a mandate at the polls for her policies, she called for elections in 1977, only to be defeated by Morarji Desai, who headed the Janata Party, an amalgamation of five opposition parties.

In 1979, Desai's Government crumbled. Charan Singh formed an interim government, which was followed by Ms. Gandhi's return to power in January 1980. On October 31, 1984, Mrs. Gandhi was assassinated, and her son, Rajiv Gandhi, was chosen by the Congress (I)--for "Indira"--Party to take her place. His government was brought down in 1989 by allegations of corruption and was followed by V.P. Singh and then Chandra Shekhar.

In the 1989 elections, although Rajiv Gandhi and Congress won more seats in the 1989 elections than any other single party, he was unable to form a government with a clear majority. The Janata Dal, a union of opposition parties, was able to form a government with the help of the Hindu-nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) on the right and the communists on the left. This loose coalition collapsed in November 1990, and the government was controlled for a short period of time by a breakaway Janata Dal group supported by Congress (I), seating Chandra Shekhar as Prime Minister. That alliance also collapsed, resulting in national elections in June 1991.

On May 27, 1991, while campaigning in Tamil Nadu on behalf of Congress (I), Rajiv Gandhi was assassinated, apparently by Sri Lankan Tamil extremists. In the elections, Congress (I) won 213 parliamentary seats and put together a coalition, returning to power under the leadership of P.V. Narasimha Rao. This Congress-led government, which served a full 5-year term, initiated a gradual process of economic liberalization and reform, which has opened the Indian economy to global trade and investment. India's domestic politics also took new shape, as traditional alignments by caste, creed, and ethnicity gave way to a plethora of small, regionally based political parties.

The final months of the Rao-led government in the spring of 1996 were marred by several major political corruption scandals, which contributed to the worst electoral performance by the Congress Party in its history. The Hindu-nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) emerged from the May 1996 national elections as the single-largest party in the Lok Sabha but without enough strength to prove a majority on the floor of that Parliament. Under Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee, the BJP coalition lasted in power 13 days. With all political parties wishing to avoid another round of elections, a 14-party coalition led by the Janata Dal emerged to form a government known as the United Front, under the former Chief Minister of Karnataka, H.D. Deve Gowda. His government lasted less than a year, as the leader of the Congress Party withdrew his support in March 1997. Inder Kumar Gujral replaced Deve Gowda as the consensus choice for Prime Minister of a 16-party United Front coalition.

In November 1997, the Congress Party again withdrew support for the United Front. New elections in February 1998 brought the BJP the largest number of seats in Parliament--182--but fell far short of a majority. On March 20, 1998, the President inaugurated a BJP-led coalition government with Vajpayee again serving as Prime Minister. On May 11 and 13, 1998, this government conducted a series of underground nuclear tests, prompting U.S. President Clinton and Japan to impose economic sanctions on India pursuant to the 1994 Nuclear Proliferation Prevention Act.

In April 1999, the BJP-led coalition government fell apart, leading to fresh elections in September. The National Democratic Alliance-a new coalition led by the BJP-gained a majority to form the government with Vajpayee as Prime Minister in October 1999.

Timeline approximate

40000 BC -- Rock art in Bhimbetka

7000 BC -- The beginnings of the Indus Tradition in Mehrgarh

3300 BC -- Early Mohenjadaro and Harappa

3137 BC -- Traditional date of the Mahabharata War

3102 BC -- Kaliyuga calendar

2600 BC - 1900 BC -- Unified Indus-Sarasvati Civilisation, or Harappan Civilisation

1900 BC -- Indus-Sarasvati Tradition begins to fragment into regional cultures

500 BC -- Buddhism and Jainism

Political timeline

Traditional

6676 BC - 5000 BC -- First Age, Krita yuga

5000 BC - 4000 BC -- Second Age, Treta yuga

4000 BC - 3102 BC -- Third Age, Dvapara yuga

3102 BC - 424 BC -- Brihadrathas, Pradyotas, Shishunagas, Nandas

322 BC onwards

322 BC - 183 BC -- Mauryan dynasty

183 BC - 71 BC -- Shunga dynasty

71 BC - 26 BC -- Kanva dynasty

26 BC - 434 BC -- Andhra dynasty

320 - 550 -- Gupta dynasty

606 - 647 -- Harsha of Kannauj

609-642 -- Pulakeshin of the Chalukya dynasty

870-906 -- Aditya Chola

906-953 -- Parantaka Chola I

985-1014 -- Rajaraja Chola I

1014-1042 -- Rajendra Chola I

1206-1520 -- Delhi Sultanate

1526-1707 -- Mughal Empire

1680-1818 -- Maratha Empire

1857-1947 -- British India

Religions in India:

Hinduism--Buddhism--Jainism--Islam--Sikhism--Christianity

Historical Figures and Topics:

Mahabharata--Bimbisara--Ajatashatru--Buddha--Chandragupta Maurya--Ashoka--Kanishka--Chandragupta II--Kumaragupta--Skandagupta--Harsha--Dharmapala--Devapala--Mihira Bhoja--Mahendrapala--Rajaraja Chola--Rajendra Chola--Krishna Deva Raya--Akbar--Shivaji--Ranjit Singh--Rani Lakshmi Bai--Lokamanya Tilak--Mohandas Gandhi--Jawaharlal Nehru--Indira Gandhi--Rajiv Gandhi--Narasimha Rao--Atal Behari Vajpayee

See also: India

External links

• Ancient India
• History of India
• http://thetruehistoryandthereligionofindia.org/

  Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "History of India."

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India

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

The Republic of India, located in the south of Asia and comprising most of the Indian subcontinent.And it consists of federation of 28 states , they are different in religion ,language but they exit as a nation with in definite territory as a country, is the second most populous country in the world and is the world's largest democracy with over one billion people and more than one hundred distinct languages. The Indian economy is the fourth-largest in the world, in terms of purchasing power parity.

The name India is derived from Sindhu, the local name for the river Indus. The country is called Bharat (pronounced as bhaarat; after the wise and pious King Bharata of ancient times) among Indians. India borders Bangladesh, Myanmar, China, Bhutan, Nepal and Pakistan on land, with Sri Lanka and the Maldives just across the Indian mainland in the Indian Ocean.

भारत गणराज्य
Bharat Ganarajya

(In Detail) (In Detail)
National motto: "Satyameva Jayate" (Sanskrit: Truth Alone Triumphs)
Official language	Hindi (+17 other nat. lang.)
Political status	Former colony of the U.K Independence on August 15, 1947
Capital	New Delhi
Largest City	Mumbai
President	APJ Abdul Kalam
Prime minister	Atal Behari Vajpayee
Area  - Total  - % water	Ranked 7th 3,287,590 km² 9.5%
Population  - Total  - Density	Ranked 2nd 1,049,700,118 319.3/km²
GDP  - Total  - GDP/head	Ranked 4th 2,66 trillions $ 2,540 $
Currency	Indian Rupee (INR)
Time zone	UTC +5.30
National anthem	Jana-Gana-Mana
National song	Vande Mataram
National game	Hockey
Internet TLD	.IN
Calling Code	91

History

Main article: History of India

The rock art tradition of India has been traced to about 40,000 years ago in the paleolithic at Bhimbetaka in Central India and other sites. The first permanent settlements in South Asia appeared about 9,000 years ago. This indigenous culture developed into the Indus Valley civilization(also referred to by some as the Sindhu-Sarasvati Tradition), which was at its height from around 2600 BC to 1900 BC and was one of the earliest civilisations.

Around 1500 BC, the influx of Aryan tribes from the northwest of India and to some extent their merger with the earlier inhabitants resulted in the classical Vedic culture. The earlier, more widely known, viewpoint was that this influx was through a sudden and violent invasion. However, recent thinking tends to favor the idea that there may have been a more gradual migration. (See Aryan invasion theory.) Eventually, Aryan culture, language, and religion became predominant in the region.

Arab incursions starting in the 8th century and Turkic in the 12th were followed by incursions by European traders beginning in the late 15th century.

By subjugating the Mughal empire in the 19th century, the British Empire had assumed political control of virtually all Indian lands. Mostly nonviolent resistance to British colonialism under Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru led to independence in 1947. The subcontinent was divided into the secular state of India and the smaller Muslim state of Pakistan. Pakistan occupied two noncontiguous areas, and a civil war between West and East Pakistan in 1971, in which India eventually intervened, resulted in the sedition of East Pakistan to form the separate nation of Bangladesh.

Fundamental concerns in India include the ongoing dispute with Pakistan over Kashmir, massive overpopulation, environmental degradation, extensive poverty, and ethnic and religious strife, all this despite impressive gains in economic investment and output.

Politics

Main article: Politics of India

India is a Union of states with an increasingly federal structure. Officially it is declared as The Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic Republic of India. India has as head of state a president, whose duties are largely ceremonial. The president and vice president are elected indirectly for 5-year terms by a special electoral college. Their terms are staggered, and the vice president does not automatically become president following the death or removal from office of the president.

Executive power is centred in the Council of Ministers (cabinet), led by the prime minister. The president appoints the prime minister, who is designated by legislators of the political party or coalition commanding a parliamentary majority. The president then appoints subordinate ministers on the advice of the prime minister.

India's bicameral parliament consists of the upper house called 'The Council of States' (Rajya Sabha) and the lower House called 'The House of the People' (Lok Sabha), both of which were established by the Constitution of India. The Council of Ministers is responsible to the Lok Sabha. The legislatures of the states and union territories elect 233 members to the Rajya Sabha, and the president appoints another 12. The elected members of the Rajya Sabha serve 6-year terms, with one-third up for election every 2 years. The Lok Sabha consists of 545 members; 543 are directly elected to 5-year terms. The other two are appointed by the president.

States and territories

Main article: States and territories of India

India is subdivided into 28 states, 6 union territories (marked by a *) and the national capital territory of Delhi:

Map shows parts of Kashmir claimed by India, but controlled by Pakistan, as part of Pakistan.

• Andaman and Nicobar Islands *
• Andhra Pradesh
• Arunachal Pradesh
• Assam
• Bihar
• Chandigarh *
• Chhattisgarh
• Dadra and Nagar Haveli *
• Daman and Diu *
• Delhi
• Goa
• Gujarat
• Haryana
• Himachal Pradesh
• Jammu and Kashmir
• Jharkhand
• Karnataka
• Kerala
• Lakshadweep *
• Madhya Pradesh
• Maharashtra
• Manipur
• Meghalaya
• Mizoram
• Nagaland
• Orissa
• Pondicherry *
• Punjab
• Rajasthan
• Sikkim
• Tamil Nadu
• Tripura
• Uttaranchal
• Uttar Pradesh
• West Bengal

Geography

Main article Geography of India

Located on the Indian subcontinent, India consists roughly of three major parts; in the north the massive Himalayas mountain range (with the highest point being the Kanchenjunga at 8,598 m) and the Indo-Gangetic plain (with deserts in the western end), and in the south the extensive Deccan plateau. The latter is part of a large peninsula in between the Bay of Bengal to the east and the Arabian Sea to the west, with both being part of the greater Indian Ocean.

India is home to several major rivers such as the Ganges, the Brahmaputra, the Yamuna, the Godavari and the Krishna. A small part of the upper course of the name-giving Indus lies within Indian territory. The Indian climate varies from tropical monsoons in the south to more temperate climate in the north.

Economy

Main article Economy of India

India's economy encompasses traditional village farming, modern agriculture, handicrafts, a wide range of modern industries, and a multitude of support services, including software. In fact, India's software exports alone are around $10 billion(2003). However, a quarter of the population is still too poor to be able to afford an adequate diet. India's international payments position remained strong in 2001 with adequate foreign exchange reserves, and moderately depreciating nominal exchange rates. As measured by GDP in US Dollars, India's 2002 output of $481 billion ranked it 12th in the world. As measured by GDP on Purchasing Power Parity basis, India's 2002 figure of $2.66 trillion makes it the fourth largest in the world.

Growth in manufacturing output has slowed, and electricity shortages continue in many regions. India has large numbers of well-educated people skilled in the English language; India is a major exporter of software services and software workers. Also see List of software companies, List of Indian companies.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of India

India is the second-most populous country in the world, with only China having a larger population. Language, religion, and caste are major determinants of social and political organisation within the highly diverse Indian population today.

Hindi, in the Devanagari script, is the only official federal language and individual states and territories have adopted 17 other co-official languages. These are the Dravidian languages of Kannada, Malayalam, Tamil, and Telugu, and the Indo-Aryan languages of Bengali, Marathi, Urdu, Gujarati, Oriya, Punjabi, Assamese, Kashmiri, Sindhi, Nepali, Konkani and the classical language of Sanskrit. Many other languages belonging to both groups are spoken as well. English, though only an associate or 'link' language, is still widely in use in law and government, particularly in the higher echelons.

Although 83% of the people are Hindus, India is home to the world's second largest Muslim population. Other smaller religious minorities include Christians, Sikhs, Jains, Buddhists, jews and Parsis. See also Religions of India.

The caste system once reflected Indian occupational and religiously defined hierarchies. Traditionally, there were four broad categories of castes (varnas), though they consisted of thousands of castes and subcastes, whose relative status varied from region to region. The caste system was an important social factor for most Indians till the early 1900's. The embracement of the lower castes into the mainstream community was brought about by Mahatma Gandhi who called them "Harijans" (people of God). Presently, India has tough laws against discrimination on the basis of caste. There is a policy for the socio-economic upliftment of the erstwhile lower castes, by the provision of free education till graduation, reservation of admission seats in institutions for higher education, a 50% quota in government jobs and faster promotions. However, caste remains a significant factor in the political life of the country as well as in some social customs such as marriage.

See also Religion in India

Culture

Main article: Culture of India

• Cinema of India
• Music of India
• Indian science
• Indian classical music
• Indian festivals
• Indian literature
• Indian classical dance
• Indian folk music and dance
• Indian cuisine
• Indian food.

Indian culture is an expression of the numerous and successive waves of influences in the sub-continent with the Northern part of India being subjected to this more than the South. What follows constitutes just a small sample of a vast tradition.

In music, two important forms are the Carnatic and the Hindustani, the former from South India, a much purer form and the latter from North India deriving a lot from Muslim infuences.

In literature, oral and written forms prevail. Apart from the Vedas which are a sacred form of knowledge, there are other works such as the epics of Ramayana and Mahabharatha, treatises such as Vaastu Shastra in Architecture and Town planning and Artha Shastra in political science. Urdu poetry is an example of a linguistic synthesis. The literature of the Sangam period in Tamil is renowned.

Many dance forms exist in India - Bharata Natyam, Odissi, Kuchipudi, Kathak, Kathakali, etc., mostly they have a narrative form, telling stories. Other forms such as street theatre and puppetry are also found.

Festivals can also be included as part of Indian culture because they are a way of life in India. There are many of them -Diwali, Vijayadasami, Pongal, etc., they are not only religion-based but also include those glorifying important stages in a person's life, seasonal cycles, etc.

Indian science was advanced in ancient times - Aryabhatta and Bhaskara were important scientists who studied planetary motion. The Arabic numerals are actually an Indian contribution.

Traditional dresses in India include the Sari (Saree), Salwar Kameez, Dhoti and Kurta.

In cuisine, rice and wheat form the staple diet. Some popular dishes include Thali- a full fledged meal, Dosa, Idli and Chapati.

Movies are an integral part of everyday life in India, most notably the Hindi, Tamil and Telugu for their commercial bases, and Bengali and Malayalam for its artistic leanings.

Though each region has a specific culture, in recent times there is a growing tendency to merge boundaries and imbibe aspects from other regions. Also, with increasing globalization, and due to the liberalization of the Indian economy in the early 90's, there has been influence of Western culture. So there is Indi-pop in music , Hinglish or Tanglish- English flavoured with terms from local language used most prominently in fields such as advertising, pizzas with indigenous spices, experimental dance and theatre forms, and so on. The invasion of cable TV has spawned an entirely new popular culture.

Apart from these historical and context specific forms, what an Indian sees as important in Indian culture are abstract qualities such as hospitality, family values, acceptance and toleration of differences, resilience and co-existence.

Sports

As far as sports are concerned, though not India's national sport, cricket is a very popular game today and India's size has made it the game's financial powerhouse.

• Some other popular sports - field hockey, tennis, chess. (Chess is supposed to have originated in India).
• Some traditional indigenous games -kabaddi, gilli-danda

Art and Architecture

Indian architecture

Miscellaneous topics

• Communications in India
• Transportation in India, Indian Railways
• List of cities in India
• Military of India
• Foreign relations of India
• Stamps and postal history of India
• Influential businessmen of India
• List of Indians
• Civilian honours
  • Bharat Ratna
  • Padma Vibhushan
  • Padma Bhushan
  • Padma Sree
• List of India-related topics
• Mass media in India
• Recommended reading: India

External links

Official

• GOI Directory - Directory of governmental websites
• Prime Minister's Office - Official prime ministerial site
• President of India - Official presidential site
• Indian Parliament - Official parliamentary site
• Ministry of Defence - Official MOD site

Other

• CIA - The World Factbook -- India - CIA's Factbook on India
• India News
• Amazing Facts about India
• Census of India
• India Pictures
• Photos of Delhi and other places in Northern India from Planetware.com.
• Tourism of India - Governmental tourism site
• Travel information at countryguide.com

Countries of the world  |  Asia

India is also the letter I in the NATO phonetic alphabet

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "India."

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List of cities in India

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

This is a list of cities in India:

• Ahmadabad
• Agra
• Aurangabad
• Bangalore
• Baroda
• Bhopal
• Bhubaneshwar
• Chennai (formerly Madras)
• Gandhinagar
• Haridwar
• Jaipur
• Jodhpur (aka City of the Sun, Blue City)
• Kolkata (formerly Calcutta)
• Mumbai (formerly Bombay)
• New Delhi or Delhi
• Panaji ("New Goa")
• Rishikesh
• Trivandrum ("Thiruvananthapuram")
• Varanasi (aka Benares)

See also: List of cities

External links

• Map
• City maps

  Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "List of cities in India."

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List of India-related topics

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

This page is a list of articles that are related to India and Indian culture.

A-F G-O P-Z

A

Ambedkar - Andaman and Nicobar Islands - Andaman Islands - Andhra Pradesh - Arunachal Pradesh - Aryan - Aryan invasion theory - Assam

B

Babur - Bangalore - Bihar - Bharatiya Janata Party - Brahmaputra - British Empire - Buddhism

C

caste system - Chandigarh - Chhattisgarh - Chennai - companies - Congress (I) Party - Culture of India

D

Dadra and Nagar Haveli - Dalit theology - Daman and Diu - Delhi - Devanagari

E

Eve teasing

F

G

Indira Gandhi - Mohandas Gandhi - Rajiv Gandhi - Sonia Gandhi - Ganges - Goa - Gujarat

H

Haryana - Himachal Pradesh - Himalayas - Hindi - Hinduism - History of India - History of South Asia

I

Indians - Indus - Islam

J

Jammu and Kashmir - Jellaladin Mahommed Akbar - Jharkhand

K

Avul Pakir Jainulabdeen Abdul Kalam - Karnataka - Kashmir - Kerala - Kolkata

L

Lakshadweep - List of cities in India - List of famous Indians - Lok Sabha

M

Madhya Pradesh - Maharashtra - Manipur - Meghalaya - Mizoram - Mohandas Gandhi - Mughal Empire - Mumbai - Mass media in India

N

Nagaland - Jawaharlal Nehru

O

Orissa

P

Pondicherry - Politics of India - Punjab

Q

R

Rajasthan - Rajya Sabha - Religion in India

S

Shah Jahan - Sikhism - Sikkim

T

Taj Mahal - Tamil - Tamil Nadu - Tripura

U

Uttaranchal - Uttar Pradesh

V

Atal Behari Vajpayee - Vishwa Hindu Parishad

W

West Bengal

X

Y

Z

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "List of India-related topics."

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List of national parks of India

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

National parks in India include:

• Anshi National Park
• Bandhavgarh National Park
• Bandipur National Park
• Bannerghatta National Park
• Jim Corbett National Park
• Gir Forest National Park
• Kanha National Park
• Kaziranga National Park
• Keoladeo National Park
• Kudremukh National Park
• Little Rann of Kutch
• Manas National Park
• Nagarhole National Park
• Nanda Devi National Park
• Rajaji National Park
• Ranthambor National Park
• Sariska Tiger Reserve
• Sundarbans National Park

External Links

• United Nations List of National Parks and Protected Areas: India (1993)

  Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "List of national parks of India."

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Politics of India

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Government

According to its constitution, India is a "sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic." Like the United States, India has a federal form of government. However, the central government in India has greater power in relation to its states, and its central government is patterned after the British parliamentary system. On several occasions, "the Centre", the national government, has imposed direct rule on several states.

The government exercises its broad administrative powers in the name of the president, whose duties are largely ceremonial. The president and vice president are elected indirectly for 5-year terms by a special electoral college. Their terms are staggered, and the vice president does not automatically become president following the death or removal from office of the president.

Real national executive power is centered in the Council of Ministers (cabinet), led by the Prime Minister of India. The president appoints the prime minister, who is designated by legislators of the political party or coalition commanding a parliamentary majority. The president then appoints subordinate ministers on the advice of the prime minister.

India's bicameral parliament consists of the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and the Lok Sabha (House of the People). The Council of Ministers is responsible to the Lok Sabha.

The legislatures of the states and union territories elect 233 members to the Rajya Sabha, and the president appoints another 12, who are experts in science or the arts. The elected members of the Rajya Sabha serve 6-year terms, with one-third up for election every 2 years. The Lok Sabha consists of 545 members; 543 are directly elected to 5-year terms. The other two are appointed by the President if he feels that the Anglo-Indian Community is underrepresented.

India has 28 states and 7 union territories. At the state level, some of the legislatures are bicameral, patterned after the two houses of the national parliament. The states' chief ministers are responsible to the legislatures in the same way the prime minister is responsible to parliament.

Each state also has a presidentially appointed governor who may assume certain broad powers when directed by the central government. The central government exerts greater control over the union territories than over the states, although some territories have gained more power to administer their own affairs. Local governments in India have less autonomy than their counterparts in the United States. Some states are trying to revitalize the traditional village councils, or panchayats, which aim to promote popular democratic participation at the village level, where much of the population still lives.

Justice System

India's independent judicial system began under the British, and its concepts and procedures resemble those of Anglo-Saxon countries. The Supreme Court consists of a chief justice and 25 other justices, all appointed by the president on the advice of the prime minister. In the 1960s India moved away from using juries for most trials, finding them to be corrupt and ineffective, instead almost all trials are conducted by judges.

India had an effective police force that is far less corrupt than many others in the region. Its members have been known to rough up suspects, however, and have been frequently accused of trying to extract confessions.

India's prisons are of reasonable quality, but they are usually heavily overcrowded. While India maintains capital punishment only a handful of people are sentenced to death each year.

India has not joined the International Criminal Court

Political Parties in India

Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee took office in October 1999 after a general election in which a BJP-led coalition of 13 parties called the National Democratic Alliance emerged with an absolute majority. The coalition reflects the ongoing transition in Indian politics away from the historically dominant and national-based Congress Party toward smaller, narrower-based regional parties. This process has been underway throughout much of the past decade and is likely to continue in the future.

Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)

The Bharatiya Janata Party (Indian People's Party) emerged as the single-largest party in the Lok Sabha (lower house of Parliament) elections in September 1999. The BJP currently leads a coalition government under Prime Minister Atal B. Vajpayee. Party President Kushabhau Thakre was elected by the Party National Executive in April 1998. BJP draws its political strength mainly from the "Hindi belt" in the northern and western regions of India. The party holds power in the states of Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh (in coalition with several small parties), Himachal Pradesh (in coalition with Himachal Vikas Congress), Punjab (in coalition with Akali Dal), and in Haryana (in coalition with the Indian National Lok Dal). Popularly viewed as the party of trading communities, the BJP has made strong inroads into both the upper caste and lower caste vote bank in recent national and state assembly elections due to its universal appeal for equality between religions.

The BJP has strong political support from the middle class who support it for its demands that special treatment of minorities is removed making India a truly secular state. The VHP has urged the Indian government to remove laws which put Hindus at a disadvantage vis-a-vis Muslims and Christians in policies. Its leader, Praveen Togadia, has attacked former Prime Minister Sonia Gandhi as turning the Congress Party into "a protector of militant Islamic forces." The VHP also supports the construction of a temple for the Hindu God Rama on the site of the Babri Mosque in Ayodhya.

Congress (I) Party

The Congress (I) Party, led by Sonia Gandhi (widow of the late Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi), holds the second-largest number of seats in the Lok Sabha. Priding itself as a secular, centrist party, the Congress has been the historically dominant political party in India. Its performance in national elections has steadily declined during the last decade. The Congress still rules in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra (in coalition with the National Congress Party), Karnataka, and three of the smaller states in the northeast. The political fortunes of the Congress have suffered badly as major groups in its traditional vote bank have been lost to emerging regional and caste-based parties, such as the Bahujan Samaj Party and the Samajwadi Party.

Sonia Gandhi, who was born in Italy and is a Christian, is eligible for the post of Prime Minister of India making India unique in this respect. Human rights activists and those who fight against xenophobia quote India as an example to follow. The Janata Dal United Party claims to be a national party but currently holds significant strength only in Karnataka and Bihar. It advocates a secular and socialist ideology and draws much of its popular support from Muslims, lower castes, and tribals.

People's Democratic Party, Jammu and Kashmir

This local party won state elections in October 2002, which upset the long-standing pro-BJP alliance. The PDP is allied with the Congress Party (I).

Country name:
conventional long form: Republic of India
conventional short form: India

Data code: IN

Government type: federal republic

Capital: New Delhi

Administrative divisions: 28 states and 7 union territories*; Andaman and Nicobar Islands*, Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chandigarh*, Chhattisgarh, Dadra and Nagar Haveli*, Daman and Diu*, Delhi*, Goa, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Lakshadweep*, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Orissa, Pondicherry*, Punjab, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal

Independence: 15 August 1947 (from UK)

National holiday: Anniversary of the Proclamation of the Republic, 26 January (1950)

Constitution: 26 January 1950

Legal system: based on English common law; limited judicial review of legislative acts; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations

Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal

Executive branch:
chief of state: President Abdul Kalam (since 26 July 2002); Vice President Bhairon Singh Shekhawat (since 12 August 2002)
head of government: Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee (since 19 March 1998)
cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister elections: president elected by an electoral college consisting of elected members of both houses of Parliament and the legislatures of the states for a five-year term; election last held NA July 2002 (next to be held NA July 2007); vice president elected by both houses of Parliament for a five-year term; election last held 12 August 2002 (next to be held NA August 2007); prime minister elected by parliamentary members of the majority party following legislative elections; election last held NA October 1999 (next to be held NA October 2004) head of government: Prime Minister Atal Bihari VAJPAYEE (since 19 March 1998) cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister election results: Abdul KALAM elected president; percent of electoral college vote - NA%; Bhairon Singh SHEKHAWAT elected vice president; percent of Parliament vote - 59.8%; Atal Bihari VAJPAYEE elected prime minister; percent of vote - NA%
Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament or Sansad consists of the Council of States or Rajya Sabha (a body consisting of not more than 250 members, up to 12 of which are appointed by the president, the remainder are chosen by the elected members of the state and territorial assemblies; members serve six-year terms) and the People's Assembly or Lok Sabha (545 seats; 543 elected by popular vote, 2 appointed by the president; members serve five-year terms)
elections: People's Assembly - last held 5 September through 3 October 1999 (next to be held NA 2004)
election results: People's Assembly - percent of vote by party - BJP alliance 40.8%, Congress alliance 33.8%, other 25.4%; seats by party - BJP alliance 304, Congress alliance 134, other 105

Judicial branch: Supreme Court, judges are appointed by the president and remain in office until they reach the age of 65

Political parties and leaders:

Akali Dal (representing Sikh religious community in Punjab) Prakash Singh Badal;

All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam or AIADMK J. Jayalalitha;

All India Forward Bloc or AIFB Prem Dutta Paliwal (chairman), Chitta Basu (general secretary)];

Asom Gana Parishad Prafulla Kumar Mahanta;

Bahujan Samaj Party or BSP Kanshi Ram;

Bharatiya Janata Party or BJP Kushabhau Thakre, president, L. K. Advani, A. B. Vajpayee;

Bihar Peoples Party Anand Mohan Singh;

Biju Janata Dal or BJD Navin Patnaik;

Communist Party of India or CPI Indrajit Gupta;

Communist Party of India-Marxist or CPI-M Harkishan Singh Surjeet;

Communist Party of India/Marxist-Leninist or CPI/ML [Vinod MISHRA];

Congress (I) Party [Sonia GANDHI, president];

Dravida Munnetra Kazagham or DMK (a regional party in Tamil Nadu) [M. KARUNANIDHI];

Indian National League [Suliaman SAIT];

Janata Dal (Ajit) [Ajit SINGH];

Janata Dal United Party or JDU [Sharad YADAV, president, I. K. GUJRAL];

Kerala Congress (Mani faction) [K. M. MANI];

Muslim League [G. M. BANATWALA];

National Conference or NC (a regional party in Jammu and Kashmir) [Farooq ABDULLAH];

Rashtriya Janata Dal or RJD [Laloo Prasad YADAV];

Revolutionary Socialist Party or RSP [Tridip CHOWDHURY];

Samajwadi Party or SP [Mulayam Singh YADAV, president];

Samata Party or SAP (formerly Janata Dal members) [George FERNANDES];

Shiv Sena or SHS Bal Thackeray;

Tamil Maanila Congress [G. K. MOOPANAR];

Telugu Desam (a regional party in Andhra Pradesh) [Chandrababu NAIDU];

Trinamool Congress [Mamata BANNERJEE]

Political pressure groups and leaders: numerous religious or militant/chauvinistic organizations, including Vishwa Hindu Parishad, and Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh; various separatist groups seeking greater communal and/or regional autonomy

International organization participation: AfDB, AsDB, BIS, C, CCC, CP, ESCAP, FAO, G- 6, G-15, G-19, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA (observer), IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, MINURSO, MIPONUH, MONUC, NAM, OAS (observer), OPCW, PCA, SAARC, UN, UNAMSIL, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIFIL, UNIKOM, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNU, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO

Flag description: three equal horizontal bands of saffron (top), white, and green with a blue chakra (24-spoked wheel) centered in the white band; similar to the flag of Niger, which has a small orange disk centered in the white band

See also : India

References

• CIA World Factbook page (public domain text)
• U.S. Department of State page on India (public domain text)

  Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Politics of India."

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President of India

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

The President of India is the ceremonial head of state and the supreme commander of the armed forces.

The current President of India is Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam.

Article 52 of the Constitution of India provides for a President of India. "There shall be a President of India". Article 53 states that executive power of the Union shall vest in the President, who shall exercise directly or through officers under him, this power in accordance with the Constitution. This provision is similar to the provision under Article II of the US Constitution. A remarkable feature under the Indian constitution could be seen under Article 53 whereby parliament has the authority to confer powers and functions exercised by the president to any other authority. Unlike 22nd amendment to US Constitution Indian President could be elected for any number of terms. the Constitution requires that the President must be a citizen of India but it is not a condition that he must be born citizen. In fact Indian president is a part of the Parliament (Article 79) and literally a nominal head of state. Although the Constitution explicitly says that the president is the executive head of the state but this real executive power is exercised by the council of ministers and Prime minister at the helm of it. This has to be inferred from Article 74 of the Indian Constitution ".. council of ministers to aid and advise the President who shall, in exercise of his functions, act in accordance with such advise".

The President is elected whenever the office becomes vacant by an electoral college consisting of:

• Members of both Houses of Parliament
• Members of the Unicameral Legislature or the Lower House of the Bicameral Legislature of each State

Each elector casts a different number of votes. The general principle is that the total votes cast by Members of Parliament equals the total votes cast by Legislators. Also, legislators from larger states cast more votes than those from smaller states. Finally, the number of legislators in a state matters; if a state has a few legislators, then each legislator has relatively more votes; if a state has many legislators, then each legislator has fewer votes. The actual calculation for votes cast is as follows: First, determine the population of a certain State. Then, divide the population by one thousand. Finally, divide this quotient again by the number of legislators from the State voting in the electoral college. This number is the number of votes per legislator in a given state. For votes cast by those in Parliament, determine the total number of votes cast by all state legislators. Then, divide the sum by the number of members of both Houses of Parliament. This is the number of votes per member of either house of Parliament. (Note that India's electoral college is provided by law, not by the Constitution)

The constitution also provides the mechanism for the impeachment of the President (Article 61) for the violation of the Constitution. The place of the president is peculiar in the Indian governmental setup. His functions are to be exercised in accordance with the aid and advice of the council of ministers but powers are to be exercised by the President however the rider in favour of parliament vides Article 53 of the Constitution. The president of India swears before entering the office of the president that he shall protect, preserve and defend the Constitution (Article 60) which provides for an executive head of state who is nominal or ceremonial. The Indian Constitution must be seen as a purveyor of a system of governance where a mixture of presidential and parliamentary systems could be located.

Governors General of India after independence

Louis Mountbatten,   Earl Mountbatten of Burma	1947-08-15 to 1948-06-21
Chhakravarthi Rajagopalachari)	1948-06-21 to 1950-01-26

Presidents of India

Dr. Rajendra Prasad	1950-01-26 to 1962-05-13
Dr. S. Radhakrishnan	1962-05-13 to 1967-05-13
Dr. Zakir Hussain	1967-05-13 to 1969-05-03
V.V.Giri (acting)	1969-05-03 to 1969-07-20
Muhammad Hidayat Ullah (acting)	1969-07-20 to 1969-08-24
V.V.Giri	1969-08-24 to 1974-08-24
Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed	1974-08-24 to 1977-02-11
Basappa Danappa Jatti (acting)	1977-02-11 to 1977-07-25
Neelam Sanjiva Reddy	1977-07-25 to 1982-07-25
Giani Zail Singh	1982-07-25 to 1987-07-25
Ramaswamy Venkataraman	1987-07-25 to 1992-07-25
Dr. Shankar Dayal Sharma	1992-07-25 to 1997-07-25
K. R. Narayanan	1997-07-25 to 2002-07-25
Dr. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam	2002-07-25 to present

External link

• Indian Parliament & constitution

  Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "President of India."

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Prime Minister of India

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Prime Ministers of India:

India follows a parliamentary system of government, modelled after that of the United Kingdom to which it was formerly subject.

• Jawaharlal Nehru (1947-1964) first prime minister
• Lal Bahadur Shastri (1964-1966) second prime minister
• Indira Gandhi (1966-1977) third prime minister
• Morarji Desai (1977-1979) fourth prime minister
• Choudhary Charan Singh (1979-1980) fifth prime minister
• Indira Gandhi (1980-1984) third prime minister (second time in office)
• Rajiv Gandhi (1984-1989) sixth prime minister
• V. P. Singh (1989-1990) seventh prime minister
• Chandra Shekhar (1990-1991) eighth prime minister
• P. V. Narasimha Rao (1991-1996) ninth prime minister
• Atal Behari Vajpayee (1996) tenth prime minister
• H. D. Deve Gowda (1996-1997) eleventh prime minister
• I. K. Gujral (1997-1998) twelfth prime minister
• Atal Behari Vajpayee (1998-present) tenth prime minister (second time in office)

External link

• Office of the Prime Minister

  Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Prime Minister of India."

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Tourism in India

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

India is one of the most attractive tourist destinations in Asia. Bounded by the Himalayan ranges in the north, and surrounded on three sides by water (the Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, and the Indian Ocean), with a long history and diverse culture, India offers a wide array of places to see and things to do.

Perhaps India's best-known site is the Taj Mahal, one of the world's greatest architectural achievements. It was built between 1631 and 1653 by Emperor Shah Jahan in honor of his wife, Arjumand Banu, more popularly known as Mumtaz Mahal. The Taj Mahal serves as her tomb.

One of the popular tourist circuits is called the Golden Triangle: the cities Delhi; Agra (site of the Taj Mahal); and Jaipur. Delhi is approximately 200 kilometers away from Agra, and 250 kilometers from Jaipur.

Another set of destinations covers the desert cities of Jodhpur, Jaiselmer, Bikaner, and Barmer, in the state of Rajasthan, the "Land of Kings." Jodhpur is a fortress-city at the edge of the Thar Desert. Jaisalmer is famous for its golden fortress, and Bikaner for its medieval history as a trade route outpost. Barmer and surrounding areas are a perfect picture of typical Rajasthani villages.

Other cities of interest include Gwalior, Khajuraho, Varanasi, Mathura, and Haridwar.

India also has a large variety of protected wildlife. The country's protected wilderness consists of 75 National Parks and 421 Sanctuaries, of which 19 fall under the purview of Project Tiger. Its climatic and geographic diversity makes it the home of over 350 mammals and 1200 bird species, many of which are unique to the subcontinent. Some well known national wildlife sanctuaries include Corbett, Kanha, Sariska, Periyar, Ranthambhor, and Bharatpur.

Moving south, many places are a mix of ancient historic sites as well as industrial/technological hubs. Some of these are listed below.

The southern state of Karnataka offers:

• Bangalore, the IT capital of India, is also significant for its history
• Mysore, about 140km from Bangalore, has palaces, KRS Dam, several temples, a hindu temple atop Chamundi hills, a few kilometers away are Belur, Halebid, SravanaBelagola, where nearby fortresses can be found (Tipu's)
• Hampi the city of ruins (1500's when the Muslim kings destroyed the prosperous Vijayanagar empire)

Goa is another popular destination, famous for its excellent beaches, churches, and temples.

Kerala is most famous for its backwaters, and for its tropical beaches and spice farms.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Tourism in India."

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Transportation in India

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Railways:
total: 62,915 km (12,307 km electrified; 12,617 km double track)
broad gauge: 40,620 km 1.676-m gauge
narrow gauge: 18,501 km 1.000-m gauge; 3,794 km 0.762-m and 0.610-m gauge (1998 est.)

Cities with metro systems: Calcutta, Chennai, New Delhi, Mumbai.

See also Indian Railways.

Highways:
total: 3,319,644 km
paved: 1,517,077 km
unpaved: 1,802,567 km (1996 est.)

Waterways: 16,180 km; 3,631 km navigable by large vessels

Pipelines: crude oil 3,005 km; petroleum products 2,687 km; natural gas 1,700 km (1995)

Ports and harbors: Calcutta, Chennai (Madras), Cochin, Jawaharal Nehru, Kandla, Mumbai (Bombay), Vishakhapatnam

Merchant marine:
total: 321 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 6,647,268 GRT/11,074,025 DWT
ships by type: bulk 124, cargo 69, chemical tanker 14, combination bulk 1, combination ore/oil 4, container 15, liquified gas 10, passenger/cargo 5, petroleum tanker 75, short-sea passenger 2, specialized tanker 2 (1999 est.)

Airports: 346 (1999 est.)

Airports - with paved runways:
total: 238
over 3,047 m: 12
2,438 to 3,047 m: 49
1,524 to 2,437 m: 84
914 to 1,523 m: 74
under 914 m: 19 (1999 est.)

Airports - with unpaved runways:
total: 108
2,438 to 3,047 m: 2
1,524 to 2,437 m: 4
914 to 1,523 m: 47
under 914 m: 55 (1999 est.)

Heliports: 16 (1999 est.)

See also : India

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Transportation in India."

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Abbreviations & Acronyms: India

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Modern Usage: India

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Commercial Usage: India

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Image Slideshow: India

Photos: India More pictures...

Illustrations: India More pictures...

Computer Images: India More pictures...

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Photo Album: India

Thumbnail	Description & Credit	Thumbnail	Description & Credit
	Child suffering with Marasmus in India. Credit: CDC.		View of India and Saudi Arabia from Clementine. Credit: NASA.
	U.S. Air Force aircrew personnel work to unload a C-17 "Globemaster III" aircraft's precious cargo of humanitarian earthquake relief supplies, after arriving at the international airport in Ahmedabad, India, on Feb. 3, 2001. Members of the 7th A.		Harvesting Rice in India. Credit: USDA.
	India ink scratchboard drawing of a pair of Canada Geese and their brood by Alderson Magee, 1940 Lakeshore Drive, Sagle, Idaho 83860. Return to the Federal Duck Stamp Office Home Page.		U.S. Army Air Forces. Station Hospital, Pandaveswar Army Air Base, India : General view. Credit: National Library of Medicine.
	In India, ... cancers occur[ing] in the mouth or pharynx ... believed to be due to the chewing of betel quid. / WHO p. Credit: National Library of Medicine; photo by E. Schwab..		"India Ink copy of Photograph of H.I.M. Adler, bow view on reef. Bridge over River Mulvai" Artwork by Rear Admiral Lewis A. Kimberly, contained in his personal journal of the Apia Hurricane. It shows German gunboat Adler as she lay on the western side of Apia Harbor after the storm, with the Mulivai River bridge in the left background. Credit: NAVY.
	Halftone reproduction "From an India ink drawing loaned by Mr. Charles H. Cramp", depicting the ship as originally designed, before installation of a bowsprit. Credit: NAVY.		Passage to India. Credit: Library of Congress.
Source: pictures compiled by the editor from various references; see picture credits.

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Digital Photo Gallery: India
 

"Falls in India" by Yvan Lagarrigue Commentary: "A wonderful waterfall called JogFalls, India."	"India 5" by Lily Rosen Commentary: "The moste beutifull piople in the world...."
Source: photographs selected by the editor, with permission from the photographers.

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Sounds Captioned with "India".

Play	Caption
	Tabla and Ghatham percussion from India with synthesized flute melody.
Source: compiled by the editor from various references; see credits.

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Familiar Quotations: India

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Historic Usage: India

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Use in Literature: India

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Non-Fiction Usage: India

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Spoken Usage: India

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Speeches: India

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Usage Frequency: India

Source: compiled by the editor from several corpora; see credits.

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Name Usage Frequency: India

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Usage in Company Names: India

Source: compiled by the editor from Icon Group International, Inc.

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Expressions: India

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Frequency of Internet Keywords: India

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Modern Translation: India

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Ancestral Language Translations: India

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Bible Trace: India

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Matched Bible Translations: India

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Misspellings: India

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Rhyming with "India"

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Anagrams: India

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