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Zimbabwe

Specialty Definition: History of Zimbabwe

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

This is the History of Zimbabwe. See also the History of Africa and History of present-day nations and states.

There have been many civilizations in Zimbabwe as is shown by the ancient stone structures at Khami, Great Zimbabwe and Dhlo-Dhlo. The first major civilization to become established was the Mwene Mutapa (or Monomatapas), who were said to have built Great Zimbabwe, in the ruins of which was found the soapstone bird that features on the Zimbabwean flag. By the mid 1440s, King Mutota's empire included almost all of the Rhodesian (Zimbabwean) plateau and extensive parts of what is now Mozambique. The wealth of this empire was based on small-scale industries, for example iron smelting, textiles, gold and copper, along with agriculture. The regular inhabitants of the empire's trading towns were the Arab and Swahili merchants with whom trade was conducted.

The Gokomere people, a Bantu-speaking group of migrant farmers, inhabited the Great Zimbabwe site from about 500, displacing earlier Khoisan people. From about 1000 the fortress took shape, reaching its peak by the fifteenth century. These were the ancestors of the Mashona (or Shona) people, who make up about 80% of modern Zimbabwe's population. Later they formed the Rozwi Empire, which continued until the nineteenth century. In fact, the strict Shona name is Zimbabhwe.

In the early 16th century the Portuguese arrived and destroyed this trade and began a series of wars which left the empire so weakened that it entered the 17th century in serious decline. Several Shona states came together to form the Rozwi Empire which covered more than half of present day Zimbabwe. By 1690 the Portuguese had been forced off the plateau and the Rozwi controlled much of the land formerly under Mwene Mutapa. Peace and prosperity reigned over the next two centuries and the centres of Dhlo-Dhlo, Khami, and Great Zimbabwe reached their peaks. As a result of the mid-19th century turmoil in Transvaal and Natal, the Rozwi Empire came to an end.

The minority Matabele (Ndebele) people in the south arrived there in historically recent times (1834). British occupation began in the 1890s, under the leadership of Cecil Rhodes, for whom the area was renamed Rhodesia. A treaty was signed with the British South Africa Company in 1888 allowing them to mine gold in the kingdom, now under Matabele rule. The increasing influx of settlers as a result of this treaty led to war with Lobengula, King of Matabeleland in 1893. Lobengula died while fleeing north, and the Ndebele were defeated and European immigration began in earnest.

Rhodesia became a self-governing colony with responsible Government in 1923. What this meant was that there was a local parliament although some powers (notably relating to African political advancement) was retained by London. Southern Rhodesia (as it was called then) was ruled via the Dominions Office (and not the Colonial Office) although strictly speaking the country was not a Dominion (like Canada, Australia, South Africa etc.). This was a unique case.

The formation of a number of political parties along with sporadic acts of sabotage came as a result of African impatience. At the forefront of this move was the Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU), mostly Ndebele, led by Joshua Nkomo. It was shortly joined by the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), mostly Shona, a breakaway group under Ndabaningi Sithole. After the collapse of the federation in 1963, both ZAPU and ZANU were banned and the majority of their leaders imprisoned.

Britain adopted a policy known as NIBMAR (No Independence Before Majority African Rule), but in 1965 Ian Smith's hardline Rhodesian Front (RF) party won every one of the 50 seats in the Legislative Assembly, which was controlled by the white minority. On November 11, 1965, Smith made a Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI). Initially, Smith protested loyalty to Queen Elizabeth II as head of state, although he refused to recognise the authority of her Governor, Sir Humphrey Gibbs, and declared Rhodesia a republic in 1970.

Britain declared Smith's actions illegal, and the Commonwealth imposed economic sanctions. The UDI was not recognised by any other country, even by the apartheid regime in South Africa. In 1968 the UN voted to make the sanctions mandatory but they were largely ineffective. The measures taken by the British government to force Smith to revoke UDI seemed useless, as the economic sanctions imposed actually saw Rhodesia's economy grow. Most of the infrastructure still in the country today was developed.

Both ZAPU and ZANU began campaigns of guerrilla warfare around 1966, and guerrilla raids led to escalation in white emigration from Rhodesia. The coming of independence in Angola and Mozambique in 1975 altered the power balance within Rhodesia greatly as it forced South Africa and the USA to rethink their attitudes to the area, in order that they could protect their economic and political interests. Attempts were made by both countries to pressure Smith into accepting majority rule. With Kenneth Kaunda's Zambian support the nationalist groups were convinced to come together under the united front of Abel Muzorewa's African National Council. The imprisoned nationalist leaders were released.

Continuing talks failed to bring the two sides to an agreement, despite changes to the nationalist "line-up", now called the Patriotic Front (PF), a union of ZANU and ZAPU. Muzorewa had since formed a new party, the United African National Council (UANC), as had Sithole, who had formed a breakaway party from ZANU, called ZANU Ndonga. In the face of a white exodus, Ian Smith made an agreement with Muzorewa and Sithole, known as the Internal Settlement. This led to the holding of new elections in 1979 in which black Africans would be in the majority for the first time. The country was renamed Zimbabwe-Rhodesia in 1979, with Muzorewa as Prime Minister.

However, the new state was not recognised by the international community, which continued to press for a settlement involvinng the Patriotic Front. Finally in 1979 under the Lancaster House agreement, its legal status as the British colony of Southern Rhodesia was restored, in preparation for free elections and independence as Zimbabwe.

In elections in March 1980, Robert Mugabe's ZANU party won the election, with 53 out of 80 seats reserved for black voters, with Joshua Nkomo's ZAPU gaining 27, and Muzorewa's UANC only three. The Republic of Zimbabwe came into being on April 18, 1980, in a ceremony attended by Britain's Prince Charles. A song was written and sung by Bob Marley to celebrate the independence of Zimbabwe also called 'Zimbabwe'. He was invited to perform a concert at the country's independence festivities, and this song, was, of course, included.

As well as changing the name of the country, the new government changed numerous place names in 1982, starting with the capital, Salisbury, which was renamed Harare. The main street in the capital, Jameson Avenue, was renamed in honour of Samora Machel, President of Mozambique.

The new Constitution provided for a non-executive President as Head of State with a Prime Minister as Head of Government. The first President was Rev. Canaan Banana with Robert Mugabe as Prime Minister. In 1987, the Constitution was amended to provide for an Executive President and the office of Prime Minister was abolished. The constitutional changes came into effect on 1 January 1988 with Robert Mugabe as President.

The Parliament was bicameral, with the House of Assembly being directly elected and the Senate consisting of indirectly elected and nominated members, including tribal chiefs. Under the Constitution, there were two separate voters rolls, one for the black African majority, who had 80 per cent of the seats in Parliament and the other for whites and other ethnic minorities, such as Coloureds (people of mixed race) and Asians, who held a 20 per cent.

This gave whites disproportionate representation, and in 1986 the Constitution was amended to scrap this, replacing the white seats in with seats filled by nominated members. Many white MPs joined ZANU PF, which then reappointed them. In 1990, the Senate was abolished, and the House of Assembly's membership was increased to include members nominated by the President.

Following indepedence, there was increasingly bitter rivalry between ZAPU and ZANU, with guerrilla activity starting again, in Matabeleland (south-western Zimbabwe). Nkomo (ZAPU) left for exile in Britain, and did not return until Mugabe guaranteed his safety. However, talks led to the merger of the two rival parties as ZANU-PF in 1988.

From 1982 to 1983, the North Korean trained Fifth Brigade was sent by the government, composed of ethnic Shonas, massacred between 2000 and 8000 Ndebele civillians in Matabeleland, according to a 2001 investigative report of the Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace in Zimbabwe and the Legal Resources Foundation of Zimbabwe. The mass murders were assisted by Shona militias like the militias now organized by ZANU-PF. The crimes included mass murder of whole villages, mass rape, and widespread torture. The victims were often forced to sing Shona songs before being beaten and killed. No one has ever been prosecuted for these massacres, and commanders who perpetrated them are now at high levels of the Zimbabwe armed forces.

However, Robert Mugabe, the nation's first Prime Minister, has been the country's only ruler (as President since 1987) and has dominated the country's political system since independence for a period of over 20 years. Mugabe has moved to increase his grip on power, and eliminate any political opposition to himself, at times bordering on paranoia. For example, Mugabe would not go out without a bodyguards and a presidential motorcade, whereas the reviled white leader Ian Smith would walk or drive around the capital unescorted, even when he was Prime Minister. Mugabe had become increasingly notorious in Southern Africa for his flagrant freedom of speech and human rights abuses, the near-destruction of his country's economy and for the way in which he has gone about eliminating the opposition to his rule. His government did not hesitate to jail political opponents and independent journalists.

In February 2000, Mugabe once again tried to change the constitution widely believed to give him more sweeping powers, by holding a constitutional referendum. Mugabe would have been allowed to serve two more terms (another 10 years) as president, and would have been given authority to dissolve Parliament without cause. However, the victory for the No vote in Zimbabwe's constitutional referendum stunned the ruling party and thrown it into chaos. The governments many vested interests, that had grown up under 20 years of virtual one-party rule made an easy and democratic transition far from certain.

In 1997 Mugabe was panicked by demonstrations by Zanla ex-combatants (war veterans), who had been the heart of the liberation struggle 20 years before. He agreed to pay them large gratuities and pensions, which proved to be a wholly unproductive and unbudgeted financial commitment. He also raised the issue of land ownership by white farmers. While most whites had left Zimbabwe after independence, mainly for neighbouring South Africa, they continued to wield disproportionate control of the economy, especially agriculture. In a populist, Mugabe raised the spectre of land expropriation without compensation. Both steps brought the government into headlong conflict with the International Monetary Fund, for it was difficult to see how Zimbabwe could ever attract investment if it confiscated the assets of investors who had put their money into creating productive farms.

Zimbabwe had also declined economically, after Mugabe's misrule. In 1999, facing decreasing support, he orchestrated the invasion of white-owned farms despite the severe drought in the region for redistribution to his supporters by the war veterans and youth militia (green bombers). The police and military were instructed not to protect the farmers or their workers against violence. This lead to the destruction of much of Zimbabwe's agricultural base and over 100,000 farmers, farm workers and their families losing their homes and jobs through the often violent seizing of farms throughout 1999 and to date resulting in the decimation of the Zimbabwean economy. The political situation made it unlikely that the western countries would be inclined to do much more than provide sustenance assistance. Certain African leaders were also reluctant to criticise Mugabe for fear of helping the former colonial powers.

Some of the white farmers were murdered. Also, the same activists who had taken over the white farms spread out to kill, rape and maim supporters of the political opposition Movement for Democratic Change. It was black members of the opposition who were the real target of the takeovers. By terrorising the opposition into submission, Mugabe got a parliamentary majority for ZANU-PF (he also got to appoint 30 of the MPs). The presidential elections (held on the 9th and 10th of March 2002) were of critical importance to the entire Southern African region. The main concern was that if the elections were not free and fair it would have a destabilizing effect on the region causing more economic turmoil in countries like South Africa and Botswana. After pressure by the European Union (which eventually led to travel sanctions being imposed on Mugabe and his inner circle ZANU-PF elite).

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "History of Zimbabwe."

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List of cities in Zimbabwe

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

This is a list of cities in Zimbabwe.

• Harare

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "List of cities in Zimbabwe."

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Transportation in Zimbabwe

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Railways:
total: 3,077 km (2002), 2,759 km (1995)
narrow gauge: 3,077 km 1.067-m gauge (313 km electrified) (2002), 2,759 km 1.067-m gauge (313 km electrified; 42 km double track) (1995 est.)
note: note: includes the 318 km Bulawayo-Beitbridge Railway Company line (2002)

Highways: total: 18,338 km paved: 8,692 km unpaved: 9,646 km (2002, 1996 est.)

Waterways: the Mazoe and Zambezi rivers are used for transporting chrome ore from Harare to Mozambique

Pipelines: petroleum products 212 km

Ports and harbors: Binga, Kariba

Airports: 430 (2002), 459 (1999 est.)

Airports - with paved runways: total: 17 (2002), 18 (1999 est.) over 3,047 m: 3 (2002, 1999) 2,438 to 3,047 m: 2 (2002, 1999( 1,524 to 2,437 m: 4 (2002, 1999( 914 to 1,523 m: 8 (2002), 9 (1999 est.) total: 17

Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 413 (2002), 441 (1999 est.) 1,524 to 2,437 m: 4 (2002, 1999) 914 to 1,523 m: 197 (2002), 217 (1999 est.) under 914 m: 212 (2002), 220 (1999 est.)

See also : Zimbabwe

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Transportation in Zimbabwe."

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Zimbabwe

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

The Republic of Zimbabwe is a country located in the southern part of the continent of Africa, between the Victoria Falls, Zambesi river, Kariba Dam and Limpopo river. It is surrounded by South Africa to the south, Botswana to the west, Zambia to the north and Mozambique to the east.

Republic of Zimbabwe

National motto: Unity, Freedom, Work
Official language	English, Shona, Ndebele
Capital	Harare
Harare's coordinates	17° 50' S, 31° 03' E
Executive President	Robert Mugabe
Area  - Total  - % water	Ranked 59th 390,580 km² 1%
Population  - Total (2003)  - Density	Ranked 66th 12,576,742 32/km²
Independence  - Declared  - Recognised	Rhodesian civil war (as Rhodesia) in 1965 (as Zimbabwe) in 1980
Currency	Zimbabwe dollar (Z$)
Time zone	UTC +2 (DST, yes or not)
National anthem	Kalibusiswe Ilizwe leZimbabwe (Blessed be the land of Zimbabwe)
Internet TLD	.ZW
Calling Code	263

History

Main article: History of Zimbabwe

After 33 years of administration by the British South Africa Company, from 1923 until 1980 the country was officially the British colony of Southern Rhodesia, though Ian Smith's white minority government proclaimed independence unilaterally in 1965 as the State (subsequently Republic) of Rhodesia.

After a brief period as Zimbabwe Rhodesia in 1979 under an internal settlement between the regime and part of the African opposition movement, the country was returned to British rule at the end of 1979 pending elections which led to legal independence under majority government on April 18, 1980. Since then, under the dictatorial regime of Robert Mugabe, the country has declined economically.

Politics

Main article: Politics of Zimbabwe

The gross misuse of land, badly-managed resources and misappropriated donor funding (from organisations like the International Monetary Fund) have led the international community to forecast severe famine in the region by mid-2003. The ruling Zanu-PF elite continues with its controversial Land Reform policies, which have caught international attention because white farmers have been targeted. Observers such as the Southern African Bishops Conference, Amnesty International, Genocide Watch and others have reported that country is now on the verge of genocide. As former Speaker of Parliament, Didymus Mutasa, has put it: "We would be better off with only six million people, with our own people who support the liberation struggle. We don't want all these extra people". The government has been accused of a more subtle genocide by starving areas of opposition support in order to avoid the media interest that resulted from the images that came pouring out of Rwanda, and of withholding grain supplies from AIDS victims, speeding up their deaths and hiding the murder behind AIDS statistics. After a brief period of reconcilation, the government is attempting to exploit tribal and racial differences to gain support for its policies, focussing on the theme of colonial theft by whites of black land as it confiscates farms owned by mainly white farmers. The state-monopoly Grain Marketing Board (GMB) has prohibited the importation of food by private citizens.

However a growing opposition party called the Movement for Democratic change (MDC), led by Morgan Tsvangirai and growing to popular strength has led many people to believe that political change must come, hopefully through democratic process and the restoration of Zimbabwean rule of law. During 2002, the country's much-contested Presidential elections (many Zimbabweans considered Morgan Tsvangirai to be a clear winner) are believed to have been manipulated to deflect the winnings back to the ruling Zanu-PF government.

For the country once considered the bread basket of the SADC (Southern African Development Community) region, the future remains sad and uncertain. The international community believes that political decisions made both overseas and by Zimbabwe's southern-most neighbour South Africa are crucial to the balance of power in this sovereign state. Under the direction of South African President Thabo Mbeki it remains to be seen whether Mbeki's proposed plan for a true African Renaissance will include political freedom and the rule of law within Zimbabwe.

Provinces

Main article: Provinces of Zimbabwe

Zimbabwe is divided into 8 provinces and 2 cities* with provincial status: Bulawayo*, Harare*, Manicaland, Mashonaland Central, Mashonaland East, Mashonaland West, Masvingo, Matabeleland North, Matabeleland South, Midlands.

Geography

Main article: Geography of Zimbabwe

Economy

Main article: Economy of Zimbabwe

The government of Zimbabwe faces a wide variety of difficult economic problems as it struggles to consolidate earlier progress in developing a market-oriented economy. Its involvement in the war in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, for example, has already drained hundreds of millions of dollars from the economy. Badly needed support from the IMF suffers delays in part because of the country's failure to meet budgetary goals. Inflation rose from an annual rate of 32% in 1998 to 59% in 1999 and to 208% in February 2003, expected to reach 350% by the end of the year. The economy is being steadily weakened by AIDS; Zimbabwe has the highest rate of infection in the world.

The destruction of much of Zimbabwe's agricultural base through the seizing of mainly white-owned farms throughout 1999 and 2000 has decimated the Zimbabwean economy. The political situation makes it unlikely that the West will be inclined to do much more than provide sustenance assistance.

The lack of foreign currency, as well as the difference between the official exchange rate (officially 55 to the US$, while 1600 to the dollar is available on the black market) have resulted in fuel shortages and a lack of basic supplies. Libya supplied fuel, partially in exchange for land, but Zimbabwe could not meet the basic payments, and supplies have been stopped. Without fuel, the demise of the economy continues apace.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Zimbabwe

Culture

Main article: Culture of Zimbabwe

Holidays

Date	English Name	Local Name	Remarks

• Music of Zimbabwe

Miscellaneous topics

• Communications in Zimbabwe
• Transportation in Zimbabwe
• Military of Zimbabwe
• Foreign relations of Zimbabwe

External Links

• SADC Database - Database on Food & Agriculture in SADC Countries
• World-wide press freedom index - Rank 122 out of 139 countries (report 2002)
• Amnesty International (Zimbabwe)
• Zimbabwe Human Rights NGO Forum

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Countries of the world  |  Africa

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Zimbabwe."

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Abbreviations & Acronyms: Zimbabwe

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Modern Usage: Zimbabwe

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Commercial Usage: Zimbabwe

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Image Slideshow: Zimbabwe

Photos: Zimbabwe More pictures...

Computer Images: Zimbabwe More pictures...

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Photo Album: Zimbabwe

Thumbnail	Description & Credit	Thumbnail	Description & Credit
	Police dog attacking a black Zimbabwean man during a demonstration coinciding with the arrival of British Commonwealth Secretary Arthur Bottomley in Zimbabwe. Credit: Library of Congress.		Freedom for Zimbabwe : support international conference of the Zimbabwe revolution for freedom-independence. Credit: Library of Congress.
	Zimbabwe. Credit: Library of Congress.		Jornada de solidaridad con Zimbabwe (17 de marzo) = Day of Solidarity with Zimbabwe (March 17) ... Credit: Library of Congress.
	Zimbabwe : jornada de solidaridad, 17 de marzo = day of solidarity, March 17 ... Credit: Library of Congress.		Zimbabwe majority rule now : support the liberation struggle. Credit: Library of Congress.
	It's raining in Zimbabwe join us in shipping warm clothing to Zimbabwean refugees / / Zimbabwe Relief Coalition. Credit: Library of Congress.
Source: pictures compiled by the editor from various references; see picture credits.

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Digital Photo Gallery: Zimbabwe
 

"Marabada" by Kevin Walsh Commentary: "Granite kopje at Marabada, Zimbabwe."

Source: photographs selected by the editor, with permission from the photographers.

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Non-Fiction Usage: Zimbabwe

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Speeches: Zimbabwe

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Usage Frequency: Zimbabwe

Source: compiled by the editor from several corpora; see credits.

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Usage in Company Names: Zimbabwe

Source: compiled by the editor from Icon Group International, Inc.

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Expression: Zimbabwe

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Frequency of Internet Keywords: Zimbabwe

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Modern Translation: Zimbabwe

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Anagrams: Zimbabwe

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