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Nicholas

Specialty Definition: Nicholas

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Specialty Definition: Nicholas Flamel

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Nicholas, or Nicolas Flamel, was a French alchemist who lived in the fifteenth century. His life is no myth: his house in Paris, built in 1407, still stands, at 51 rue de Montmorency, where it has been made into a restaurant. His deeds, though, are the stuff of legend.

Flamel is supposed to have been the most accomplished of the European alchemists. It is claimed that he succeeded at the two magical goals of alchemy supposed to have been the chief aims of that pseudoscience: he made the Philosopher's Stone that turns lead into gold, and he and his wife Perenelle achieved immortality.

Flamel is supposed to have received a mysterious book from a stranger, full of qabalistic words, in Greek and Hebrew. Flamel made the understanding of this text of lost secrets his life's work, travelling to universities in Andalusia to consult with Jewish and Muslim authorities. In Spain, he met a mysterious master who taught him the art of understanding his manuscript.

After his return from Spain, Flamel was able to become rich: the knowledge that he gained during his travels made him a master of the alchemical art. Flamel became a philanthropist, endowing hospitals and churches with the proceeds from his alchemical work. He caused arcane alchemical signs to be written on a tombstone, which is preserved at the Musée de Cluny in Paris. His tomb is empty; some say it was sacked by people in search of his alchemical secrets. On the other hand, if he in fact achieved the secret of immortality, his empty tomb may have another explanation.

Nicholas Flamel's story is alluded to in the first Harry Potter book, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone (or, Sorcerer's Stone).

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Nicholas Flamel."

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Nicholas I of Russia

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Russia under Nicholas I (Николай I Павлович) covers the period of Russian History following the wars and revolutionary movements of the three decades prior to 1825. The Russian state became reactionary and repressive in response.

Nicholas completely lacked his brother's spiritual and intellectual breadth; he saw his role simply as one paternal autocrat ruling his people by whatever means were necessary. Having experienced the trauma of the Decembrist Revolt, Nicholas I was determined to restrain Russian society. A secret police, the so-called Third Section, ran a huge network of spies and informers. The government exercised censorship and other controls over education, publishing, and all manifestations of public life. In 1833 the minister of education, Sergey Uvarov, devised a program of "autocracy, Orthodoxy, and nationality" as the guiding principle of the regime. The people were to show loyalty to the unlimited authority of the tsar, to the traditions of the Russian Orthodox Church, and, in a vague way, to the Russian nation. These principles did not gain the support of the population but instead led to repression in general and to suppression of non-Russian nationalities and religions in particular. For example, the government suppressed the Uniate Church in Ukraine and Belorussia in 1839.

The official emphasis on Russian nationalism contributed to a debate on Russia's place in the world, the meaning of Russian history, and the future of Russia. One group, the Westernizers, believed that Russia remained backward and primitive and could progress only through more thorough Europeanization. Another group, the Slavophiles, idealized the Russia that had existed before Peter the Great. The Slavophiles viewed old Russia as a source of wholeness and looked askance at Western rationalism and materialism. Some of them believed that the Russian peasant commune, or mir , offered an attractive alternative to Western capitalism and could make Russia a potential social and moral savior. The Slavophiles, therefore, represented a form of Russian messianism.

Despite the repressions of this period, Russia experienced a flowering of literature and the arts. Through the works of Aleksandr Pushkin, Nikolay Gogol', Ivan Turgenev, and numerous others, Russian literature gained international stature and recognition. Ballet took root in Russia after its importation from France, and classical music became firmly established with the compositions of Mikhail Glinka (1804-1857).

In foreign policy, Nicholas I acted as the protector of ruling legitimism and guardian against revolution. His offers to suppress revolution on the European continent, accepted in some instances, earned him the label of gendarme of Europe. In 1830, after a popular uprising had occurred in France, the Poles in Russian Poland revolted. Nicholas crushed the rebellion, abrogated the Polish constitution, and reduced Poland to the status of a Russian province. In 1848, when a series of revolutions convulsed Europe, Nicholas was in the forefront of reaction. In 1849 he intervened on behalf of the Habsburgs and helped suppress an uprising in Hungary, and he also urged Prussia not to accept a liberal constitution. Having helped conservative forces repel the specter of revolution, Nicholas I seemed to dominate Europe.

Russian dominance proved illusory, however. While Nicholas was attempting to maintain the status quo in Europe, he adopted an aggressive policy toward the Ottoman Empire. Nicholas I was following the traditional Russian policy of resolving the so-called Eastern Question by seeking to partition the Ottoman Empire and establish a protectorate over the Orthodox population of the Balkans, still largely under Ottoman control in the 1820s. Russia fought a successful war with the Ottomans in 1828 and 1829. In 1833 Russia negotiated the Treaty of Unkiar-Skelessi with the Ottoman Empire. The major European parties mistakenly believed that the treaty contained a secret clause granting Russia the right to send warships through the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits. By the London Straits Convention of 1841, they affirmed Ottoman control over the straits and forbade any power, including Russia, to send warships through the straits. Based on his role in suppressing the revolutions of 1848 and his mistaken belief that he had British diplomatic support, Nicholas moved against the Ottomans, who declared war on Russia in 1853. Fearing the results of an Ottoman defeat by Russia, in 1854 Britain and France joined what became known as the Crimean War on the Ottoman side. Austria offered the Ottomans diplomatic support, and Prussia remained neutral, leaving Russia without allies on the continent. The European allies landed in Crimea and laid siege to the well-fortified Russian base at Sevastopol. After a year's siege the base fell, exposing Russia's inability to defend a major fortification on its own soil. Nicholas I died before the fall of Sevastopol', but he already had recognized the failure of his regime. Russia now faced the choice of initiating major reforms or losing its status as a major European power.

Related Articles

This article is part of Imperial Russia, which is part of History of Russia.

References

The first draft of this article was taken with little editing from the Library of Congress Federal Research Division's Country Studies series. As their home page at http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html says, "Information contained in the Country Studies On-Line is not copyrighted and thus is available for free and unrestricted use by researchers. As a courtesy, however, appropriate credit should be given to the series." Please leave this statement intact so that credit can be given.

Preceded by: Alexander I

List of Russian Tsars

Succeeded by: Alexander II

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Nicholas I of Russia."

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Nicholas II of Russia

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Nicholas II, Nicholas Alexandrovich Romanov, Russian: Nikolai II (Николай II Александрович) (6 May 1868 (O.S.) = 18 May 1868 (N.S.) - 4 July 1918 (O.S.) = 17 July 1918 (N.S.)) was the last reigning Emperor of Russia and of the Romanov Dynasty. He ruled from November 1, 1894 until his abdication on March 15, 1917, and was killed with his family in 1918. Though the title of Tsar was officially abolished in 1721 by Peter the Great, the title Tsar (occasionally spelled czar) was used right down until the abolition of the monarchy.

The son of Russian Tsar Alexander III and Empress Marie Romanova (born Princess Dagmar of Denmark), he was the grandson of Christian IX of Denmark through his mother, and of Tsar Alexander II through his father.

Married in 1894 to Princess Alix of Hesse-Darmstadt (henceforth Empress Alexandra Romanova), a granddaughter of Queen Victoria, he was father to Grand Duchesses Olga, Tatiana, Maria (or Marie), Anastasia, and Tsarevich Alexei.

Nicholas assumed the throne in 1894, on the death of his father. He had not been well prepared to rule the land in the state it was at the time of his ascention. Russia was in turmoil, which was organized by undercover Bolshevik agents, and his decrees and orders quite often met with resistance in the upper layers of the government, especially in the Russian Duma or parliament. His father also died at a fairly young age, leaving Nicholas unprepared for his future tasks. His engagement to Princess Alix only slightly preceded his father's death, and his wedding came very shortly after the last ceremony of his father's funeral. He then faced the task of being autocrat of Russia in a time of major turmoil - a turmoil which would continue well beyond his death.

He relied heavily on the advice of his wife's first cousin, Kaiser Wilhelm - advice which was not so much in his own best interest as in that of "cousin Willy", who hoped in particular to prevent closer relations between Russia and Britain. An ill-conceived war with Japan (1904-1905) cost Russia dearly, but fear of a wider conflagration contributed ironically to the very Anglo-Russian Entente which Wilhelm feared.

In addition to a tumultuous international situation, Nicholas also faced deep domestic difficulties. His grandfather, Tsar Alexander II, had been assassinated by a bomb set by revolutionaries, even though he did much to improve the existing situation in the country. However, the purpose of the revolutionaries was to achieve power not through the existing regime, but by toppling it altogether, as the Russian Revolution clearly proved. As a child, Nicholas' entire family survived an assassination attempt by a bomb on a train. Defeat by Japan emboldened the regime's internal opponents, unleashing the Russian Revolution of 1905 during which organized strikes and local uprisings forced Nicholas to concede an indirectly-elected national assembly, or Duma, on October 30.

Further complicating domestic matters was the matter of succession. Alexandra bore him four daughters before their son, Alexei, was born on August 12, 1904. The young heir proved to be afflicted with hemophilia, which, at that time was virtually untreatable and usually led to untimely death. With the fragility the autocracy was experiencing at this time, Nicholas and Alexandra chose to not divulge Alexei's condition to anyone outside the royal household.

In desperation, Alexandra sought help from a wandering mystic known as Grigori Rasputin. Rasputin seemed to be able to help when Alexei was suffering from internal bleeding, and Alexandra became increasingly dependent on Rasputin and his advice (which she accepted as coming directly from God through him). However, she had no influence over Nicholas in state matters, as some historians have tried to point out. There is absolutely no evidence of her influencing any of Nicholas' decisions of state.

The outbreak of war with Germany on August 1, 1914, found Russia grossly unprepared, and an early advance ended in staggering Russian losses. Nicholas felt it his duty to lead his army directly, assuming the role of commander-in-chief (September 1915) following the loss of the Russian-ruled part of Poland. His efforts to oversee the operations of the war left domestic issues essentially in the hands of Alexandra. But Nicholas did not understand (since he had little input from the common people) how suspicious the common people were of his wife, both because she was German by birth and because of the destructive rumours the Bolsheviks have spread of her dependence on Rasputin. Rasputin's death at the hands of a group of courtiers (December 1916) was a direct result of those rumours.

Mounting national hardship and the army's initial failure to maintain the temporary military success of June 1916 led to renewed strikes and riots in the following winter. After the "February Revolution" of March 1917 (February in the existing Russian calendar) Nicholas was forced to abdicate in his own name and that of his too ill to rule son Alexei in favor of Nicholas' brother, Michael II, who abdicated after a matter of hours, ending three centuries of Romanov rule. Let it be noted here that the abdication was executed by a group of the aristocratic elite, inspired by the leftist members of the Duma and led by the general Alekseyev, whom Nicholas considered to be his right-hand army commander. It was Alekseyev's direct rebellion against orders which had installed the propagandized and leftist reserve soldiers in St. Petersburg in February, and who were not moved to a different location contrary to Nicholas' order, essentially demoralizing the government.

Nicholas, Alexandra, and their five children remained confined in the royal residence The Alexander Palace, with decreasing staff until they were moved to Tobolsk in Siberia in August 1917, a step by Kerensky government to remove them from their residence in Tsarskoe Selo and essentially further from the centers of power and possible help. In spite of Britain's numerous proposals to arrange passage of the Imperial Family to Britain, they were denied it in each and every case, thus sealing the fate that was to follow. They remained in Tobolsk until after the Bolshevik Revolution in November 1917 (the "October Revolution"), but were moved to Soviet-controlled Ekaterinburg. The last Russian Czar and all his family, including the gravely ill Prince Aleksey were brutally murdered in the basement of the Ipatiev House where they had been imprisoned in on the night of July 16 (or 17), 1918 by a band of Bolsheviks led by Yakov Yurovsky.

For a long time, the bodies were believed to have been disposed of down a mineshaft at a site called the Four Brothers. Initially, this was true - they had indeed been disposed of that way on the night of July 16/17. But Yurovsky , upon hearing the following morning that stories were abuzz in Ekaterinburg about the disposal site , went back to remove the bodies and conceal them elsewhere. He has initially intended to bury the bodies down another mineshaft some miles away, but when the vehicle carrying the bodies broke down on the way there, he made new arrangements. With two exceptions, the bodies were buried in a sealed and concealed pit on a portion of a since-abandoned cart track 12 miles north of Ekaterinburg called Koptyaki Road.

In the early 1990s, the bodies were located, exhumed and formally identified, following the fall of the Soviet Union. A secret confession by Yurovsky, which came to light in the late 1970s, but did not become public knowledge until the 1990s, helped this to happen. DNA analysis was a key means of identifying them. A single blood sample from Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh was used to identify Alexandra and her daughters through their mitrochondial genes. Another method for identification was a controversially untested super-imposition of photos over skulls. The Russian Orthodox Churches in Russia and Abroad strongly contest the claim that the bodies were those of the Imperial Family, because there is indeed very little undisputable evidence to that end.

There were two bodies missing. These were Alexei and one of the daughters - Tatiana, Maria or Anastasia. According to Yurovsky's account, the bodies of Alexei and one of the daughters, mistaken by Yurovsky's band for Alexandra, were burnt near the burial site and their ashes scattered and concealed.

Following a long series of bureaucratic and political delays, the purported remains of the family were reinterred in the Romanov family crypt in 1998 on the 80th anniversary of their murder. However, controversy over the remains continues to grow.

Life dramatized as Nicholas and Alexandra.

Preceded by: Alexander III

List of Russian Tsars

Nicholas abdicated in favour of his brother, who is sometimes referred to as Michael II but who only reigned for a day before abdicating without naming an heir. Nicholas was effectively the last Tsar.

Web Links

• Alexander Palace - a collection of many articles, along with now out-of-print books.
• List of sites dealing with this Tsar

Additional Reading

• Robert K. Massie, Nicholas and Alexandra (1967)

• John Curtis Perry and Constantine Pleshakov, The Flight of the Romanovs (1999)
  

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Nicholas II of Russia."

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Saint Nicholas

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Saint Nicholas, also known as Nikolaus in Germany and Sinterklaas in the Netherlands, is festivity for children related to the historical person Nicholas of Myra, who had a reputation for secret gift-giving. The American and British Santa Claus derives from it as it is just a degeneration of the Dutch word "Sinterklaas".

The history of the celebrations is complex and reflects the conflicts between Protestantism and Catholicism. Since Nicholas was a Catholic saint, Martin Luther replaced the Catholic festivity with a "Christkind" (Christ child) celebration on Christmas Eve. The Nicholas celebrations still remain a part of tradition among many Protestants, however, albeit on a much lower scale than Christmas. The Protestant Netherlands, however, retain a much larger Saint Nicholas tradition. Many Catholics, on the other hand, have adopted Luther's Christkind.

Celebration in Germany, Austria, and German Switzerland

In Germany, Nikolaus is usually celebrated on a small scale. Many children put a boot, called Nikolaus-Stiefel, outside their front doors on the night of December 5 to December 6. St. Nicholas fills the boot with gifts, and at the same time checks up on the children to see if they were good. If they were not, they will have charcoal in their boots instead. Sometimes a disguised Nikolaus also visits the children at school or in their homes and asks them if they "have been good" (sometimes ostensibly checking a book for their record), handing out presents on a per-behavior basis. This has become more lenient in recent decades.

But for many children, Nikolaus also elicited fear, as he was often accompanied by the sinister figure of Knecht Ruprecht, who would threaten to beat or sometimes actually beat the children for perceived misbehavior. In Switzerland, he would threaten to put bad children in a sack and take them back to the Black Forest. These traditions were implemented more rigidly in Catholic countries such as Austria. In highly Catholic regions, the local priest was informed by the parents about their children's behavior and would then personally visit the homes in the traditional Christian garment and even threaten them with rod-beatings. In parts of Austria, Krampusse, whom local tradition says are Nikolaus's helpers (in reality, typically children of poor families), roamed the streets during the festival. They wore masks and dragged chains behind them, even occasionally hurling them towards children in their way. These Krampusläufe (Krampus runs) still exist, although perhaps less violent than in the past.

Celebration in the Netherlands

For small children in the Netherlands, St. Nicholas eve is even more important than Christmas (the Dutch celebrate Christmas Eve with Santa as well, but it is more for the older children and grownups).

On the evening of each 5th of December, Saint Nicholas brings presents to every child which has been nice (in practice to all children). St. Nicholas, wearing a red bishop's dress including a red bishop's mitre rides, so the story goes, on a white horse over the rooftops of houses and is helped by his countless helpers, who have charcoal black faces and colorful Moorish dresses that date back two centuries. His helpers are called 'zwarte pieten' (black peters).

St. Nicholas himself has a long white beard, and holds a long gold colored staff with a fanciful curled top in his hand.

Each year St. Nicholas arrives by boat from 'Spain', and is then paraded through the streets of the town he arrives in (in actuality in each town of the Netherlands) welcomed by cheering children. His black peters throw hands full of candy and very small specially made round, hard cookies (Pepernoten) into the crowd. The children welcome him by singing traditional St. Nicholas songs. St. Nicholas also visits schools and shopping malls.

In the weeks before the 5th of December children can put their shoes in the hallway (traditionally before the stove) with a carrot or some hay in it for St. Nicholas' horse, in the evening, and will find a piece of candy (a piece of marzipan, an animal made out of sugar or a chocolate frog) in their shoes. Traditionally it was said that Black Peter would enter the house through the chimney, which also explained his black face and hands, and would leave a bundle of sticks (called "roe") in the shoe instead of candy when the child had not been nice. Children are also told that when they behave very badly they will be put into the sack black peter carries the presents in and will be taken back to Spain.

At the evening (or late afternoon) of the 5th of December children at home sing a song and suddenly the doorbell rings, and when they go to the door a gunny sack full of presents is found on the doorstep. Alternatively (some improvisation is often called for) the parents 'hear a sound coming from the attic' and then the presents are 'found there.

Typical presents include the first letter of the child's name made out of chocolate, a figurine of St. Nicholas made out of chocolate and wrapped in painted aluminum foil, and colored marzipan shaped into fruit, an animal or some other object. Also popular are coins and cigarettes made out of chocolate. However, the European Parliament has issued a recommendation to ban chocolate cigarettes since they might promote future real smoking.

Believing

The children, up to an age of usually seven or eight years, really believe in Sinterklaas. They think that he actually lives forever and that he comes from Spain, that he knows everything about the children and that his Zwarte Pieten crawl through chimneys. The period between his arrival and December 5 is therefore very exciting.

When children ask their parents how it can be that Sinterklaas is at so many places, they tell that he has 'Hulp' (assistent) Sinterklasen. Further, parents report in advance to the Sinterklaas at their family-gathering what the children have done good and wrong, so it looks like when the 'Goedheiligman' looks in his book, he knows everything.

For those small children, telling them at a certain age that Sinterklaas in reality doesn't exist, is the first big disappointment. There are some people who don't let their children believe in Sinterklaas, because they think it is not good to lie in general. But the common opinion is that the enjoyment for the children get is greater than this small discomfort.

Celebration in Belgium

Originally Sinterklaas or Sint-Nikolaas was only celebrated in Flanders and the Netherlands the way described above, but now he is celebrated in Walloonia too the same way. The celebrating of Saint-Nicholas is mostly the same as in the Netherlands but there are some small differences.

• Three weeks before the sixt of december he arives with his boat from Spain in Antwerp (being even a topic in the evening news).
• Most important different, In Belgium the children receive their presents the 6th december. Children have to put their shoes at the stove the evening of the fifth december and the next morning, they find their presents.

Note that Saint Nicholaas is celebrated in Belgium for centuries -there is even a city called St. Niklaas but, like every folkloristic thing in Belgium, their might be small differences, and generally in the east part of the Provincie East-Flanders Saint Nicholaas isn't celebrated but children receive precents from Sint Maarten (Saint Martin).

Celebration in the United States, United Kingdom, and Japan

See Santa Claus

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Saint Nicholas."

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Modern Usage: Nicholas

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Commercial Usage: Nicholas

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Image Slideshow: Nicholas

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Photo Album: Nicholas

Thumbnail	Description & Credit	Thumbnail	Description & Credit
	San Nicholas Island, California Surveyed by Assistant Stehman Forney, 1879 Topographic Survey T-1523. Credit: Coast & Geodetic Survey Historical Image Collection.		Taping across intersection St. Nicholas and Amsterdam Avenue Note police protection. Credit: Coast & Geodetic Survey Historical Image Collection.
	Nicholas L. Heck Fully developed wiredrag, invented Radio Acoustic Ranging Head of Divsion of Terrestrial Magnetism and Seismology. Credit: Coast & Geodetic Survey Historical Image Collection.		"A New Map of Earthquake Distribution", by Captain Nicholas Heck, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. In: The Geographical Review, Vol. XXV, 1935. Pp. 125-130. Heck noted for the first time that earthquakes were associated with the Mid- Atlantic Ridge in his accompanying paper. Heck first produced a world seismicity map showing the activity on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge in 1932. Credit: Sailing for Science - the NOAA Fleet Then and Now.
	A diagram of the old wiredrag system as developed by Nicholas Heck, Jean Hawley, and others in the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Prior to the development of sidescan sonar, this was the only method to find protrusions from the bottom that occurred between sounding lines. Credit: Sailing for Science - the NOAA Fleet Then and Now.		"Distribution of Earthquakes" as published in the "Transactions of the American Geophysical Union, p. 93, May, 1936. Captain Nicholas Heck of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey noted that earthquakes were associated with the Mid- Atlantic Ridge in his accompanying paper. Heck first produced a world seismicity map showing the activity on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge in 1932. Credit: Sailing for Science - the NOAA Fleet Then and Now.
	Figure 39. Current indicator invented by James Norman Carruthers in 1924. This meter works on the principle used in the Robinson anenometer. Left: picture of the unit. Right: unit open to view interior mechanism. This current meter was meant primarily for use by fishermen. It was first tested off the fireboat SAINT NICHOLAS off Great Yarmouth, Great Britain, in 1924. Credit: Sailing for Science - the NOAA Fleet Then and Now.		Figure 57. Puhler sounder, described by Christian Puhler in 1563, repeated an idea first put forth by Cardinal Nicholas Pusanus a century earlier. The principle, was to attach a float to a weight making it heavier than water. Upon striking bottom, the float would detach. Depth would be derived from round- trip travel time. It is unknown if this device was ever field tested. Credit: Sailing for Science - the NOAA Fleet Then and Now.
	Dormition-Trifonov Monastery, cloisters (left) (1742), Gate Church of St. Nicholas (1690-95), and bell tower (1714), east panorama, Viatka, Russia. Credit: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C. 20540.		Kuklin House (1790s; after 1817), Governor's Mansion, study of Nicholas II, who lived here with his family from August 1917 until mid April, 1918, Tobol'sk, Russia. Credit: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C. 20540.
Source: pictures compiled by the editor from various references; see picture credits.

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Digital Photo Gallery: Nicholas
 

"Nicholas the Cat" by John Siebert Commentary: "Our cat."	"Barroque door" by Celia Martinez Bravo Commentary: "2000| Prague. Barroque door from Saint Nicholas church."
Source: photographs selected by the editor, with permission from the photographers.

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Familiar Quotations: Nicholas

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Non-Fiction Usage: Nicholas

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Usage Frequency: Nicholas

Source: compiled by the editor from several corpora; see credits.

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Name Usage Frequency: Nicholas

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Source: compiled by the editor from Icon Group International, Inc.

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